European Kingdoms

Lithuania (Lietuva)

The Lithuanians, or Lietuva, were a native Baltic people, not Slavic like their neighbours to the east and south. Baltic people have lived around the shores of Mare Suebicum, the Baltic Sea, and as far east as Moscow for several thousand years, arriving as Indo-European proto-Baltic peoples around 3000 BC. Late to unite, they did so in the face of outside pressure.

Located in the heartland of the country they created, close to the later city of Vilnius, the Lithuanians under Mindaugas united the neighbouring tribes into a single entity which could fight off repeated incursions by the Teutonic Knights, who bordered them to the west and south. To the north, the Samogitians and Semigallians formed a buffer, first between the Lithuanians and the Lats, and Ests, and then against the Livonian Knights. Under subsequent rulers, the Lithuanians vastly extended the size of their state to the east and south, as Mongol power dwindled. They quickly took what is now Belarus, followed by Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Volynia, before extending to the north coast of the Black Sea, and east to Smolensk.

Lithuanian rulers held the title of 'kunigaikshtis', which can translate equally into 'duke' or 'king'. Later, however, the word 'karalius' was used to specifically denote a king. This is a Slavic derivative of 'Carolus', better known as Charles the Great / Charlemagne (the German/Russian use of Kaiser/Czar descends in much the same way from 'Caesar'). Even thought their state was considered to be a grand duchy by Europe in general, the Lithuanian rulers always referred to themselves as kings.

(Additional information by Gediminas Kiveris and Yury Kanavalau. Some names have varied spellings.)

9000s BC

By this time, Proto-Baltic hunter-gatherer tribes migrate into Prussia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland.

c.3000 BC

The Comb Ceramic culture reaches Latvia, Estonia and Finland as new peoples arrive from the east.

3000 - 2500 BC

The Corded Ware culture arrives in southern Finland, along the coastal regions, as well as in Estonia and Latvia. Agriculture also begins, although it continues to exist alongside hunter-gather activities for some time. Both these people form the proto-Baltic ancestors of the later Latvians.

c.AD 50 - 150

The arrival in Poland of the Gothic people in the first and second centuries AD has a great impact on the Baltic population there, resulting in them moving towards eastern Lithuania. In all probability, due to the ethnic affinity of these peoples, peaceful relations are established. The appearance of various new groups of pottery testifies to the further merging of these ethnic groupings.

5th century

In the first half of the fifth century, there is some evidence of a new wave of invaders in Lithuania. There is every reason to believe that nomadic hordes (either the Huns or a fringe group related to or vassals of them) carry out raids on the forts of southern and eastern Lithuania. Traces of fires and three blade spearheads are later uncovered at the forts of Aukstadvaris, Kernave, Pasvonis, and Vilnius to support the idea.

1009

The annals of the town of Quedlinburg in Germany report the arrival of Saint Brunon, known more normally as Bonifatius, on missionary work among the Prussians. His attempt ends in failure, and it is believed he is killed together with his eighteen companions somewhere in the vicinity of the Lithuanian border (the first mention of 'Lithuania' in written sources).

before 1203

A semi-legendary 'Grand Principality of Lithuania' is supposed to exist, ruled by a grand prince. In reality, the Lithuanians are ruled by several dukes and princes who preside over various tribes and vassals, many of whom are loosely united by bonds of pagan religion, kinship, and trade. It is possibly that this bonding process had begun when the region suffered Mongol incursions, but it is the arrival of German crusaders in the territory of the Lats and the Prussians which really spark the process of unification amongst the Lithuanians.

before 1219

Ringaudas

fl 1219

Zivinbudas

1219

Mindaugas is mentioned as an elder duke. His father is mentioned in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle as an unnamed powerful duke (later sources name him as Ringaudas).

? - c.1235/38

Dausprungas

Son of Ringaudas?

1235? - 1236

Mindaugas / Mindouh

Brother? United Lithuanian tribes and became first grand duke.

1236

Following the shock defeat of the Livonian Knights by the Samogitian and Semigallian tribes, Mindaugas is able to consolidate his control of Lithuania, creating a grand duchy.

Grand Duchy & Kingdom of Lithuania
AD 1236 - 1263

In 1236 the Samogitians and Semigallians (situated between the Lithuanians and the Lats in what is now southern Latvia) decimated the Livonian Knights at the Battle of Schaulen (Saule), in what was the north-west of the Lithuanian tribal territories. At the same time, Mindaugas, who may have ruled for perhaps a year beforehand,  was able consolidate his control of the eastern Lithuanian and southern Black-Rus (modern northern Belarus) territories, forming the grand duchy of Lithuania and Ruthenia, with a capital based at Navahradak.

The state quickly came to consist of all the Lithuanian lands located mainly in the basin of the River Nemunas, taking in the tribes of Upyte, Deltuva, Neris, Dainava, Nalšia, plus Melnkrievija in the south, and the Zhemait Prussians in the west. Mindaugas' power was also acknowledged to a certain extent by the Skalvs, and Nadruvs, and elements of the Yatvyags, all Prussian tribes in the west and south, and the Sels in the north-eastern corner of Lithuania, with the result that the lands by the Upper Nemunas with their mixed Balto-Slavic population became part of the new Lithuanian state.

1236 - 1263

Mindaugas / Mindouh

Converted to Christianity. Assassinated.

c.1240

Mindaugas makes the powerful Samogitians his vassals. Local rulers are allowed to remain in charge.

1242

The principality of Polotsk becomes a Lithuanian vassal state. Mindaugas places the Samogitian ruler, Tautvila, in command of the principality.

1248 - 1251

Mindaugas faces a stern test when conflict arises between him and the Galicia-Volynian Prince Daniil when the latter, along with the political powers in Livonia, and elements of the Yatvyags and Zhemaits (borderland Prussians) who have been subdued by Mindaugas now rise against him. The conflict threatens to destroy the new state. With a mixture of politics and promises, Mindaugas wins over the Livonian Knights, and converts to Christianity in 1251.

1253

As the final stage of subduing the rebellion against him, Mindaugas is crowned king of Lithuania, using a crown sent to him by the Pope (thereby officially recognising the Lithuanian state). He transfers part of the Samogitian territories to the Livonian Knights as a means of ensuring peace. The protection of the kingdom is maintained by Mindaugas from the legendary wooden castle of Voruta, one of a series of wooden castles which appear in Lithuania but which do not survive to the present day, with only hill forts remaining.

A typical Lithuanian wooden castle from a time when the land was filled with them, approximately 450 in all, held by the nobility against the country's powerful enemies.

1259

At the end of a two year truce, the eager Samogitians inflict a defeat on the Livonian Knights at the Battle of Skuodas under the leadership of Treniota, nephew of Mindaugas. Their success encourages the Semigallians to rebel against the rule of the Knights.

1260 - 1263

The Samogitians inflict a severe defeat on a joint army of Livonian Knights and Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Durbe in 1260 (now in south-western Latvia). Mindaugas is encouraged by Treniota to support the resulting rebellions against Teutonic rule, and his nephew organises military campaigns into Livonia until his own position has been strengthened. Then in 1263 he assassinates his uncle, returns the Lithuanians to paganism and takes over their governance.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania (& Ruthenia)
AD 1263 - 1795

Treniota was the nephew of King Mindaugas and leader of the fierce Samogitian tribe during the defeats which were inflicted on the Livonian Knights. He also encouraged his uncle to give up the Christianity which he had only accepted in order to prevent attacks by the Teutonic Knights, a policy which had failed. When Mindaugas began to question the alliance with his nephew, Treniota assassinated him and two of his sons, with the help of Daumantas, duke of Nalmas in northern Lithuania, and took over the reins of power in Lithuania, albeit only briefly before he was deposed by Vaisvilkas.

Lithuanian expansion stalled until Gediminas came to the throne, but then expanded beyond all recognition. Ruthenia was a Latinisation of 'Rus', the Lithuanian-controlled Slavic lands to the east, which now form parts of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, with minor extensions into Poland and Slovakia. During this period, the peoples within the grand duchy, the Lithuanians (of 'Highland' Lithuania), Samogitians, Kurshes (Couronians), Semgals, Sels, Prussians, and Yatvyags, became consolidated as the Lithuanian people.

1263 - 1264

Treniota

Samogitian ruler. Reverted to paganism. Assassinated.

1264 - 1267

Vaisvilkas

Son of Minduoh. Assassinated.

1267

Svarnas, ruler of the powerful Kievan principality of Halych, secures the throne through his marriage to one of the daughters of Mindaugas. Svarnas' brother assassinates Vaisvilkas just to ensure he is not challenged.

1267 - 1269

Svarnas of Galicia / John

Prince of Halych. Assassinated.

1270 - 1281/2

Traidenis / Traidjanis

1282

Traidenis has managed to restore a level of stability to the state, reunifying the territories which form Lithuania and pushing back the rulers of Volynia who were threatening to take over, but his death leaves some doubt about the succession, especially in the minds of later scholars, owing to a lack of chronicling for the period.

1282/83 - 1285

Daumantas

The same as Daumantas of Pskov?

1283

The Teutonic Knights continue to advance north through Prussia, and having conquered the lands of the Skalvs and part of that of the Yatvyags, it drives the Nadruvians to the River Nemunas in 1283, right on the border with Lithuania. The population of these areas is killed off, with only a few managing to escape across the border.

1285 - 1291

Butigeidis

First certain member of the Gediminid dynasty.

1291 - 1294

Pukuveras / Butvydas

Brother. Samogitian ruler.

1294

Pukuveras' accession to the Lithuanian throne unites Samogitia to the crown on a permanent basis. The son of Pukuveras rules both as a single political entity.

1295 - 1316

Viten / Vytenis

Son.

1316 - 1341

Gediminas / Hedymin

Brother.

1307

The brother of Gediminas, Vainius, secures the rule of the principality of Polotsk from the archbishopric of Riga. Successive Lithuanian rulers in Polotsk help in fending off attacks by the Livonian Knights.

1323

Gediminas transfers the Lithuanian capital to Vilnius. During his reign he also expands Lithuanian control over the Bela-Rus in the south, Vitebsk in the east, and Volynia in the south-east.

1341/2 - 1345

Jaunutis

Son.

1341 - 1377

Algirdas / Olgierd / Alhierd

Brother.

1341 - 1377

Algirdas expands Lithuanian territory further eastwards, bringing it into conflict with the grand duchy of Moscow. In 1342 his son, Andrei, is made prince of Polotsk.

1377 - 1381

Jogaila / Jagiello

Son. Converted. m Jadwiga. Became Wladyslaw V of Poland.

1377

Jogaila forces the principality of Polotsk to accept his loyal brother, Skirgaila, in favour of Andrei, whom he sees as a rival.

1379

Bishop Dietrich of Dorpat hates the Livonian Knights with some intensity, so much so that he forms a coalition against the Knights with Lithuania, Mecklenburg and the notorious Victual Brothers who are Baltic pirates. The Knights invade the bishopric but achieve no success. In the end their lack of results removes from them the right to demand military service from the Livonian bishops.

1381

While Jogaila is away, attempting to reinforce his brother's rule in Polotsk, his uncle, Kestutis, removes him from the throne, triggering the Lithuanian Civil War (1381-1384). Jogaila manages to win back control over the country.

1381 - 1382

Kestutis / Kiejstut

Brother of Algirdas. Ruler of Samogitia.

1382 - 1401

Jogaila / Jagiello

Restored. Accepted Christianity. Also king of Poland (1386-1434).

1385 - 1386

The Union of Kreva (Krewo) is agreed by Jogaila as the only certain way to halt the crusading attacks by Poland, the Teutonic Knights and Moscow. The union includes the throne of Poland in return for the Catholic Christianisation of the Lithuanians, and in 1386 Jogaila becomes king of Poland under the name Wladyslaw Jagiello. The Orthodox, Rus, nobles in the country are reduced to second class status as the Catholic nobles (or boyars) gain the best positions, but as Lithuania finds itself part of Poland and ruled in part by Poles, even the Catholic nobles are not pleased with the situation.

1387

With Jogaila's conversion to Christianity, Lithuania becomes the last state in Europe to end its pre-Christian paganism (although the Lithuanian Zemaitija - the Samogitians - are not converted until after 1410). As he is now king of a far larger domain than just Lithuania, Jogaila appoints governors to handle Lithuania's day-to-day affairs, but unhappy with the situation one of them, Vytautas, is supported by the nobles in his fight for power. In the same year Jogaila attacks Polotsk to the east and the Livonian Knights do not protect it, virtually gifting it to its attackers.

1387 - 1390

Skirgaila Ivan

Governor of Samogitia for Jogaila.

1389 - 1390

Klemensas / Klemens Moskorzowski

Governor in Lithuania for Jogaila.

1390 - 1392

Jasius / Jan Olesnicki

Governor in Lithuania for Jogaila.

1392

Vytautas is successful in gaining Jogaila's concession of power in Lithuania, and rules the country as great prince, while Jogaila concentrates on his Polish domains.

1392 - 1401

Vytautas

Governor of Samogitia for Jogaila. Became grand duke in 1401.

1397

The principality of Polotsk is abolished and becomes an administrative division of Lithuania, known as the Polotsk Voivodeship.

1398 - 1411

The duchy of Samogitia is briefly conquered by the Teutonic Knights, before being recovered by Lithuania.

1401 - 1430

Vytautas / Witold the Great

Son of Kestutis. 'Regent' (1392-1401), then grand duke.

1410

Lithuania and Poland defeat the Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg, becoming dominant for a time over Eastern Europe. Under Vytautas, Lithuania reaches the height of its territorial expansion, the equivalent size of fifteen modern Lithuanias, by taking Smolensk.

1422

The Teutonic Knights officially cede Samogitia to Lithuania under the terms of the Treaty of Melno. In the same year, Vytautas accepts an offer by the Hussites to take the crown of Bohemia, and sends his deputy, Zygmunt Koribut, there. By now he has already raided the Rus, and subordinated Novgorod and Pskov, and even Moscow comes under Lithuania's influence in 1425. Vytautas is also acknowledged by the khans of Tatar.

1429 - 1430

At the assembly of East and Central European leaders, held in Lutsk (now in Ukraine but at this time part of Lithuania), Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund von Luxembourg offers Lithuania a crown. In 1430, protests are made by the Polish Royal Council in their efforts to deny Lithuania crown status. Poland refuses passage to the emperor's envoys and their offering of a crown to Lithuania. The coronation of Vytautas in Vilnius fails. On 27 October, Vytautas dies (or is killed). His remains are entombed in Vilnius Cathedral (then known as St Stanislaus' Church). Jogaila grants the title of great prince of Lithuania to his brother, Swidrygiello.

1430 - 1432

Swidrygiello / Svitrigaila

Son of Algirdas.

1430 - 1432

Swidrygiello attempts to implement Vytautas' goal of achieving a coronation. However, he is forcibly removed from power due to the efforts of Polish politicians.

1432 - 1440

Zygmunt / Sigismund

Brother of Vytautas. Murdered by conspirators.

1435

Zygmunt has strengthened his position by granting personal immunity to the nobles of the state, including those in the lands of Rus. Now he crushes the opposition forces of Swidrygiello and his ally, the Livonian Knights. This proves to be the last invasion into Lithuania to be carried out by the Knights.

1440 - 1492

Kazimierz / Casimir

Son of Jogaila. Also king of Poland (1446-1492).

1446

Grand Duke Casimir gains the throne of Poland and becomes Casimir IV, king of Poland, as well as retaining command of the grand duchy. The union of two thrones is renewed on a personal basis (except between 1492-1501). Firstly due to Casimir's age, and then due to his responsibilities in Poland, real power in Lithuania is concentrated in the hands of the most powerful nobles, the 'Pans' Rada' or Council of Masters ('pans' is 'master' or 'mister' in Polish and Czech, a title of nobility at the time, while 'rada' means council). Their power grows steadily.

1471

The Jagiello dynasty gains control of Bohemia in the form of Ladislas II. His successor is a member of the same dynasty.

1492 - 1506

Alexander

Son. Also king of Poland (1501-1506) upon his brother's death.

1500

The Lithuanian state is forced to begin its defensive wars against the grand duchy of Moscow when the latter begins to lay claim to the Russian lands within the grand duchy. However, the Rus population remains loyal to Lithuania and Moscow's efforts are resisted.

1506 - 1544

Sigismund I

Brother. Also king of Poland.

1513 - 1514

Sigismund takes Smolensk and smashes the Moscow army near Orsha the following year.

1526

Following a devastating defeat at the Battle of Mohács and the death of Louis, the Jagiello dynasty loses Hungary and Bohemia to the Habsburgs. The defeat effectively destroys the dynasty's dream of effecting the 'Jaigello dynasty idea' wherein Lithuania, Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary are drawn together in union. The dream lives on in a more modest form for some years but is never realised.

1529

The first Lithuanian Statute is drawn up. The state system, governmental and administrative organs, and the status of the privileged nobility are legally formulated by virtue of the Statute.

1537

A peace treaty is concluded between Lithuania and Moscow in order to end nearly four decades of warfare between the two countries. However, Lithuanian relations with Moscow remain the most important concern as the Rus state begins to evolve into Russia.

1544 - 1569

Sigismund II Augustus

Son. King of Poland (1548-1572) & grand duke of Livonia (1566).

1548

Upon his father's death, Sigismund II assumes the crown of Poland.

The death of Sigismund II by Jan Matejko

1558 - 1562

Following Russian provocation and the conquest of Dorpat, the Livonian Wars erupt in the Baltic States in 1558. The Livonian Knights and the archbishop of Riga seek help from Sigismund II, pawning five Order castles and two archbishopric castles together with their surrounding territory to help procure it. However, the army of the Livonian Knights is completely destroyed by the Russians at the Battle of Ergeme in 1560, and a year later, on 29 November 1561, the master of the Order, Gotthard Kettler, acknowledges the supreme power of Grand Duke Sigismund over all areas regarding the Order, including its territories, formally dissolving the Livonian Knights. By means of this, Lithuania gains Livonia and the archbishopric of Riga, along with the bishopric of Courland from the Danes. The territory of the Semigallians is joined to Courland to form a vassal duchy.

1569 - 1795

The Union of Poland-Lithuania, Ruthenia, Livonia, Polotsk, and Samogitia is effected, establishing the Commonwealth of Poland. Sigismund becomes king of a united Poland-Lithuania. From this point on, Lithuania's fate is tied to that of Poland until the joint kingdoms are extinguished in 1795 and Lithuania is taken entirely by the Russian empire.

Russian Governors of Lithuania
AD 1795 - 1915

The Third Partition of Poland-Lithuania in 1795 brought about the total disappearance of the Lithuanian state, although Russia had already taken chunks of Lithuanian territory in the first two partitions of 1772 and 1793. For the next two centuries, the country remained a province within the mighty Russian empire until its dissolution towards the end of the First World War. Until then it was controlled by local governors. Sometimes known as the Vilnа Governorate between 1801-1840, it was controlled from Vilnius.

1795 - 1796

?

Military governor, name unknown.

1796 - 1798

Nikolay Vasilyevich Repnin

1798 - 1799

Moritz Lacy

1799 - 1801

Mikhail Illarionovich Golenschev-Kutuzov

1801 - 1806

Levin August Theophil Freiherr Bennigsen

1806 - 1809

Aleksandr Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov

1809 - 1811

Mikhail Illarionovich Golenschev-Kutuzov

Second term.

1811 - 1812

Ivan Stepanovich Guriel

1812

Aleksandr Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov

Second term.

1812

Napoleon invades the Russian empire with one of the largest armies Europe has ever seen, occupying the Baltic States for several months until he is forced to drag his French-led army back to Germany. Russian control of Lithuania is immediately restored. As the Lithuanians welcomed Napoleon as a liberator, any thoughts of a relaxation of controls are replaced by a policy of Russification.

1812 - 1830

Aleksandr Mikhailovich Rimsky-Korsakov

Restored.

1831

Aleksandr Vasilyevich Khrapovickiy

1831 - 1840

Nikolai Andreyevich Dolgorukov

1840 - 1850

Fyodor Yakovlevich Mirkovich

1850 - 1855

Ilya Gavrilovich Bibikov

1855 - 1863

Vladimir Ivanovich Nazimov

1863 - 1865

Mikhail Nikolayevich

1864

The Lithuanian language and the use of a Latin alphabet are banned in junior schools. although the smuggling of Lithuanian-language books into the country is widespread.

1865 - 1866

Konstantin von Kauffmann

1866 - 1868

Eduard

Count Baranov.

1868 - 1874

Aleksandr L'vovich Potapov

1874 - 1880

Pytor Pavlovich Albedinsky

1880 - 1884

Eduard (Ivanovich)

Count Totleben.

1882 - 1884

Aleksandr Pavlovich Nikitin

Acting governor.

1884 - 1893

Ivan Semyonovich Kakhanov

1893 - 1897

Pytor Vasilyevich Orzhevsky

1897 - 1901

Vitaliy Nikolayevich Trocky

1902 - 1904

Pytor Dmitriyevich Svyatopolk-Mirsky

1904 - 1905

Aleksandr Alekseyevich Freese

1905 - 1909

Konstantin Faddeyevich Krshivicky

1909 - 1912

The position of governor in Lithuania is vacant.

1912 - 1915

?

Unknown last Russian governor.

1916 - 1918

Russian First World War defeats of 1916 and 1917 leave the empire in chaos and bring the Baltic States under German Imperial control.

Modern Lithuania
AD 1918 - Present Day

Russian First World War defeats of 1916 and 1917 brought the Baltic States under German Imperial control. In 1917, Bolshevik-inspired thoughts of revolution were swiftly put down by the Germans, as were thoughts of independence. Lithuanians elected a German nobleman by the name of Wilhelm of Urach, a member of the royal house of Württemberg, as their king in the hope that this would bring about a form of independence. Instead, Germany's collapse in 1918 brought about the creation of a republic, as any German level of control was rejected throughout the Baltics.

1918

Mindaugas II

Wilhelm of Urach. Rejected and never crowned.

1918

Lithuania rejects a German aristocracy and forms a republic instead, with the country's act of independence being signed on 16 February.

1940 - 1944

Although the country is occupied by Soviet forces as agreed under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1940, the German army swiftly occupies Lithuania until 1944.

1944 - 1987

The Soviet army repels the German forces and re-establishes control in Lithuania. Society and industry are modelled along Soviet lines and absolute control rests with the Soviet Communist Party. The United Kingdom and most other western countries never recognise de jure the Baltic States' incorporation into the USSR.

The modern Cathedral of Vilnius is the fourth of its kind, all built one on top of the other in successive phases of rebuilding, mostly after fires

1990 - 1991

On 11 March 1990, Lithuania becomes the first Soviet republic to declare its renewed independence. The following year the declaration becomes fact as Poland, Lithuania and Belarus finally regain independence with the fall of the Soviet Union. Former East Prussia, renamed Kaliningrad, remains directly part of Russia, and is now an isolated enclave on Poland's north-eastern border.