Middle East Kingdoms

Syrian States

Ancient Syria was much larger than its modern counterpart, being bordered by the Taurus Mountains in the north, the Upper Euphrates to the north-east, and the Syrian Desert to the south-east. The name is Greek, which they used to describe various Assyrian peoples. The relatively few Syrian states which appeared in the third millennium BC differed somewhat from their contemporaries in Sumer and Akkad. Instead of relying on river irrigation, the agriculture of the north was rain-fed, so yields were lower and larger areas had to be cultivated (though with less labour). As a result, northern cities tended to be smaller with more people living in outlying settlements, and although they were still city states at heart, they had more of an appearance of being small kingdoms.

Amorites began to arrive in the territory to the west of the Euphrates, within modern Syria, from around 2500 BC. The Akkadians called them Amurru, and groups of them drifted down into Sumer where they eventually replaced the Sumerians as rulers in Mesopotamia. Enough groups remained in Syria for their name, Amurru, to eventually come to be used for part of Syria and all of Phoenicia and the Levant, instead of referring to them as a specific kingdom, language, or population.

By the first part of the second millennium BC, most of the Syrian peoples spoke Semitic dialects, but in the northern areas of Syria there is also evidence of non-Semitic Hurrian, and Hurrian names could be found as far south as Nippur, indicating a level of linguistic heterogeneity. Scribal practices were adopted from the south and were apparently taught by Babylonians.

c.10,000 BC

Alep is one of the world's first inhabited settlements.

c.6000 BC

Ugarit is first founded as a permanent settlement. At some point in the next millennium, Damas is also founded.

c.5000 BC

Alep is continuously inhabited from this date.

Chalcolithic pottery from Syria and Anatolia, dating to between 5600-3000 BC

c.3400 BC

Alakhtum is first founded as a permanent settlement.

c.3000 BC

Carchemish, Ebla, and Tuba are first founded as permanent settlements.

c.2600 - c.2200 BC

Although their creation is later than those of Sumer, the early Akkaddian and Amorite city states of the north are less well attested, and many of them are only known from later writings found in Ebla and other places.

Those which can be identified by name include Carchemish, Emar, and Tuttul along the Euphrates, and Arpad, Ebla, Gebal, Hamath, Tuba, and Ugarit in the west. These states are in contact with each other through diplomatic and commercial means. Some of these centres, such as Ebla and Alep, also seem to be able to impose their will on surrounding states, but the details of their military actions are relatively unknown.

c.2200 BC

The region is disrupted by invasions by barbarians from the north and by the cold, dry period in the Middle East which lasts for three hundred years.

c.2000s BC

During the flourishing of Ur's third dynasty in Sumer, Syrian states maintain friendly relations with the south. However, following the fall of Ur, the Syrian archaeological record shows a reduction in the number and sizes of settlements in northern Syria for reasons unknown. Documentation on Syria suffers a gap of almost two centuries before the start of the archives at Mari.

It is possible that the region undergoes an economic downturn, with only cities which control the trade routes to the south managing to survive. These include Ebla, Tuttul, and Urshu, and messengers from the Mediterranean city of Gebal also appear. There is no indication of any Syrian city dominating, either militarily or politically. Importantly, there is a strong presence of Amorites in the region by this time, a semi-nomadic people who greatly contribute towards the fall of Ur.

c.1800s BC

Syria has recovered fully and a wave of newer small states or fully urbanised cities becomes apparent, including Yadiya, making up a system of kingdoms whose rulers keep large palace archives of diplomatic correspondence showing how vital it is that they remain informed.

c.1809 - 1776 BC

Areas of Syria are conquered by the kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia. Following the death of Shamshi-Adad in 1776 BC the kingdom swiftly breaks up, with minor kingdoms reasserting themselves throughout the region. Yamkhad remains the dominant force in north-western Syria, controlling a large number of cities such as Alalakh, Carchemish, Ebla, Emar, Hashshu, Tunip, Ugarit, and Urshu. Local rulers are constantly wary of the larger states, Babylon, Elam or Eshnunna, which can make or break them.

c.1800? BC

Yahdun-Lim of Mari sends troops to join those of Yamkhad to fight against several hostile Syrian 'states', including Tuttul, defeating their armies and attacking their towns.

c.1720 BC

By now the intensive palace system of the high number of states in parts of Syria has become unsustainable. Many cities are abandoned, perhaps due to a combination of popular opposition to the system and changes in rainfall patterns. The historical record for this region disappears.

c.1650 - 1620 BC

The newly created Hittite kingdom in Anatolia attacks and destroys several Syrian states over several years, and Carchemish and Amurru are among the victims, falling under Hittite control. Aramaean groups also begin to attempt to infiltrate Syria from this point in time, although they are largely held back by Mitanni. However, they do manage to grab a foothold in Harran.

c.1595 BC

Mursili's Hittites capture and destroy Alep on their way south to sack Babylon, ending the political situation that had characterised Syria and Mesopotamia for four centuries. States such as Apum, Qatna, Tuttul, and Yamkhad all decline, The region enters a dark age which lasts for up to a century and a half in some areas and the power vacuum allows Hurrians to migrate westwards.

Greater Syrian States

Following the social collapse of the sixteenth century BC and the resultant minor dark age, some royal houses could be seen to have survived, but they were poor reflections of the past and often had no connection to their famous predecessors. New groups had risen to power elsewhere, such as in Mitanni and Kassite Babylonia, and throughout the region, urbanism was initially at an all-time low since 3000 BC. This new era was characterised as one in which Egypt and the Hittites played major roles in controlling Syria between them, while also maintaining its lack of unity.

In Syria and Canaan, a new generation of more cohesive territorial states arose, while further north and east, many of the older states were now submerged within Mitanni. Alalakh, Emar, and Ugarit all kept larger archives which, along with correspondence from the major states, provides much of the picture for this region during this era. Cities were supported by relatively small hinterlands in which the population was sparse, meaning that labour was in short supply. During the collapse and subsequent dark age after 1200 BC, the newly-arrived Aramaean tribes migrated south into Syria and the upper area of the Levant, where they created states of their own which became increasingly dominant until they were conquered by the Assyrians in the late eighth century. There were still groups of Amorites in the region, though, including those of Bashan, and those who took control on more than one occasion in Moab.

c.1503 BC

Thutmose I invades Canaan and Syria, sweeping through much of it and raising a stele at Carchemish (so far undiscovered by archaeology). Egypt establishes a presence but does not appear to remain in force.

c.1478 BC

A resurgent Egypt expands rapidly through Palestine and reaches Mitanni-controlled Syria, making Ugarit a vassal state. The Egyptians also raid further inland, where local resistance is supported by Mitanni. Hittite agents are constantly at work, trying to draw Syrian states over to them, a policy which gradually sees them gain more influence.

c.1471 BC

Egypt's Thutmose III campaigns in Syria again, this time sailing along the Palestinian coast rather than marching overland. He captures the port city of Ullaza (just north of modern Tripoli), which belongs to the territory of Tunip, now itself a vassal of Mitanni. On his homeward journey the pharaoh moves inland from Ullaza and captures the city of Ardata.

1453 BC

Egypt reasserts its authority in the region by conquering territory in the Levant and Syria as far north as Amurru. The Egyptians establish three provinces which are named Amurru (in southern Syria), Upe (in the northern Levant, which may correspond to Damas), and Canaan (in the southern Levant, which includes Gebal). Each one is governed by an Egyptian official. Native dynasts are allowed to continue their rule over the small states, but have to provide annual tribute.

c.1370 - 1350 BC

Suppiluliuma, the new Hittite ruler, takes control of northern Syria from Mitanni. The king of Ugarit informs the Hittites of a planned revolt by Alalakh, so the kingdom is incorporated directly into the empire, with its lands being assigned to Ugarit as a reward, along with those of the territories of Nuhašše (generally to the south of Alep), and Niya (a small and relatively obscure kingdom in northern Syria, also known as Niye, Niy, or Nii). During the same period, the Amarna letters between Egypt and Assyria, and the city states of Canaan and southern Syria, describe the disruptive activities of the habiru, painting them as a threat to the stability of the region.

c.1200 - c.900 BC

The Hittite empire falls as general instability grips the region's Mediterranean coast. Local cities are destroyed by the Sea Peoples and some, such as Alalakh, Emar, and Ugarit are abandoned completely. A major regional drought makes the situation worse. Others, such as Damas and Yadiya, are settled by Aramaean tribes, but survive only at a much poorer level. The Aramaeans themselves are new arrivals, only allowed access into northern Syria since the death of the powerful Assyrian king, Tukulti-Ninurta I, in 1207 BC. This is also the period in which the Israelite tribes are supposedly re-colonising areas of Palestine in the south. The entire region falls into historical obscurity for several centuries.

c.1150 BC

Assyria gains a level of control over Syria following the destruction of the Hittite empire.

c.1115 - 1077 BC

Under Tiglath-Pileser I, Assyria temporarily extends its power to fully include Syria, taking overlordship of the region from Egypt. Assyrian power quickly fades after this, and the region is free once more.

870 - 857 BC

The Assyrians invade and subjugate Syrian states, including Bit Adini, Bit Agusi, Carchemish, and Pattin, by which time many small and semi-obscure cities have arisen, such as Gamgum and Gan Dunias, along with the kingdom of Kedar in eastern Syria.

730s & 720s BC

Assyria conquers most of Syria and the Levant, including Carchemish, Damascus, Hamath, Israel, Judah, Lukhuti, Pattin, and Phoenicia. In many cases, local dynasties are removed in favour of Assyrian governors.

722 BC

The Syrians support Mardukapaliddina II in his successful bid to usurp the Babylonian throne.

612 - 605 BC

Assyria falls and Babylonia gains control of much of its former territory, including Syria, despite an attempt by Egypt to prevent this.

605 - 539 BC

Babylonia controls Syria.

539 - 332 BC

Syria becomes part of the Persian empire.

Later Syria

Under the governance of the Persian empire, a satrap was installed to govern all of Syria, with a generally peaceful transfer of power (except in Philistine Gaza). Documentation for this period is much worse than for the previous two thousand years of Semitic domination of the region, so even the dates of office for these governors is uncertain. This wasn't due to poor record-keeping, however, but to the general use of perishable materials such as papyrus. Many records that did exist were destroyed during the Greek takeover of the region in the fourth century BC when many urban centres were re-founded. Originally, Babylonia and Syria formed a single Mesopotamian satrapy (or province). Later Syria was established as a satrapy in its own right under the name of Ebimari (Babylonian) or Abar-Nahra (Aramaic-Persian) - 'beyond the river [Euphrates]'.

539 - 538 BC

Gaubaruva

First satrap of Babylonia (Mesopotamia) & Syria.

c. 500 BC

Ushtanni

Satrap of Babylonia (Mesopotamia) & Syria.

c.480 - 465 BC

Megabyzus / Baghabuxsha

Died 440 BC.

Tattenai

late 400s BC

Abrocomas

early/mid-300s BC

Belesys

fl 340s BC

Bagoses

mid-300s BC

Mazaeus / Mazdai

332 - 323 BC

The region is conquered by the Greek empire under Alexander the Great. Mazaeus initially plays his part by opposing Alexander, but he eventually surrenders, and Alexander makes him satrap of Mesopotamia.

323 - 319 BC

Laomedon of Mitylene

Greek satrap of Syria and Phoenicia.

320 - 301 BC

The Empire of Antigonus governs Syria during the period of the Diadochi Wars.

301 - 83 BC

Syria is gained by the Hellenic Seleucid empire.

83 - 69 BC

The Artashesid king of Armenia, Tigranes the Great, conquers the Seleucids in Syria.

69 - 64 BC

The Seleucids temporarily regain control of Syria.

63 BC

Rome conquers the region, although there is a Parthian incursion and occupation between 40-37 BC.

AD 395 - 640

The partition of the Roman empire. Syria is part of the Eastern Empire.

638 - 969

Between 638 and 640 Syria is conquered by Islam, and is part of the empire.

969 - 1099

Islamic rule over Syria fragments, with independent rulers emerging in several areas.

1099 - 1287

Syria is conquered by Crusaders. Sections of it are re-conquered by the Mameluke Sultan Baybars in 1268, while the remainder falls in 1287.

Other Syrian Cities

There exists a great many tells, or mounds, in modern Syria which were once cities or large towns. Many of these were never home to any kingship, while others may have flourished under such rule for only a brief period of time.

Gamgum

A Syrian city with a location which is unknown. Gamgum was home to a short-lived city state in the eighth century BC, and was mentioned in the victory stele of Sargon II of Assyria.

late 700s BC

Tarhular

Murdered.

Muttalu bar Tarhular

c.722 - 705 BC

The city is conquered by Assyria.

Gan Dunias

A Syrian city with a location which is unknown, Gan Dunias was either Akkadian or Aramaean, probably one of the many unlocated cities in modern northern Syria.

mid-800s BC

Marduk-suma-iddin

Muttalu bar Tarhular

Fought Marduk-suma-iddin for the throne.

Yansu

c.853? BC

The city is conquered by Assyria.