AD 43

The Romans arrived late in the season, in three divisions (one of which may just have been a feint to keep the Britons off guard). They landed at Richborough in Kent and Chichester in West Sussex, and initially had trouble finding anyone to fight.

The Britons, quite sensibly, took to the hills and marshes and tried to keep out of sight, hoping the Romans would use up their supplies. Eventually, however, the Romans recorded victories against Togodumnus of the Catuvellauni and his brother Caratacus, with the latter probably in Kent.

Immediately elements of the Dobunni surrendered (probably via envoys), possibly glad to be free of Catuvellauni influence. The Catuvellauni were not finished yet, however, and they met the Romans, probably at the River Medway in Kent, and faced off against them in a comparatively rare two-day battle.

There was still some extremely hard fighting to follow before the Romans finally received the surrender of the Catuvellauni (but not of Caratacus himself), and the south-east became part of the Roman Empire.

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AD 44

As they knew before they landed, the Romans wouldn't have to fight for everything. Many tribes welcomed them, if only to protect themselves from Catuvellauni pressure.

The Iceni became a client kingdom (shown here backed by vertical red lines), and the Romans created a new client kingdom in the area of modern Sussex; the Regninses had been under the governance of the Atrebates until the conquest, and this new state probably also included areas of territory belonging to the Belgae, while its ruler, Cogidubnus, was probably the son of the last independent king of the Atrebates.

Elsewhere, the Roman second wing saw some hard fighting against the tough Durotriges before they were conquered (shown here backed by diagonal red lines). The date of conquest of the remaining free Dobunni isn't known, but it cannot have taken the Romans long to reach them. There is reason to believe that Caratacus sheltered here for a time before withdrawing into Wales.

To the north and west, the Coritani welcomed the Romans, while the fiercely independent Brigantes became Roman clients, as probably did the Cornovii.

AD 47-61

Over the next decade the Romans consolidated their conquests in the south-east and the West Country. The Cornovii were drawn fully into the empire by AD 51, as a campaign into Wales was launched to pacify the tribes there.

Between AD 47-52 in Wales, the Silures gave the Romans a difficult time and some heavy losses; the Ordovices saw some action, too, and were not defeated, only possibly subdued; and a raid was conducted against the Deceangli, with extensive quantities of booty being taken.

Nothing definite was achieved in Wales, however, except for driving the High King, Caratacus, out of the south and into the arms of the Brigantes, from where he was turned over to the Romans. He was the last of the figures capable of uniting the tribes in defiance of Rome. From now on they would fight alone.

In circa AD 55 Rome established a legionary fort at Isca (Exeter), but there is little evidence of them proceeding much further west of that, while in AD 61, Roman mishandling led to the Iceni revolt which almost regained the country for the Britons. Ultimately it failed and the Iceni were also drawn fully into the empire.

AD 70-79

In AD 78 the Romans withdrew from Exeter, perhaps to reinforce their beleaguered forces in Wales. It seems highly likely that a strong Roman presence in the territory of the Dumnonii was not re-established. Instead, they may have become a permanent client kingdom.

The Iceni were now firmly part of the empire, as were the Cornovii, and the Brigantes remained a rather troublesome client kingdom in the north.

Hard fighting in Wales saw a high casualty rate on both sides. The Ordovices destroyed a Roman cavalry squadron in AD 74-75, and legionary forts were established throughout the the west in order to try and subdue the tribes. A new Roman governor in AD 79 was determined to break the rebellious Ordovices, and he almost annihilated them in the process. A final push into Anglesey within the territory of the Deceangli, and the conquest of Wales was finally achieved.

During the same period, the Romans had lost their ally within the Brigantes when they had to rescue Queen Cartimandua. Now they faced more hard fighting to conquer the north in a poorly documented campaign which ended in AD 79.

AD 80-88

Now the Romans turned their attention to the north and in AD 80 sent two invading columns into Lowland Scotland, with them meeting up at Inveresk (near Edinburgh), deep within the territory of the Votadini Britons. The force set up permanent garrisons in its wake and in AD 81, the Forth-Clyde line was secured within Damnonii territory, perhaps slightly south of the later Antonine Wall.

In AD 82, the Romans secured the western coast up to the Clyde to contain the tribesmen there (the remaining Damnonii, the Selgovae, and the Novantae), and perhaps prevent Irish raiding parties from landing.

The following year, Within the Pictish heartland, firstly north of the Firth of Forth (AD 83) and then at Mons Graupius (AD 84), the Romans won victories over what they call the 'Caledonians' led by Calgucus. Then, with the Roman fleet preceding them to spread terror, a decisive battle was fought, probably in the territory of the Vacomagi. The Highland glens were then secured along the east coast but by AD 86-88 many forts were dismantled and apart from some possible watchtowers, the main Roman forces retired back to the Tyne-Solway line (the northern Roman border shown here).

AD 90-200

Roman Britain settled down under Roman administration, with a massive building programme being undertaken in the cities.

The province was the scene of some serious warfare in circa 118-120, probably following a barbarian invasion. Visiting subsequently, the Emperor Hadrian authorised the construction of a stone wall on the Tyne-Solway line in 121-122 as part of his defensive reorganisations. Some forts were maintained to the north of the western section, once the wall was completed in around 127.

The Romans moved north again in AD 140-143 to the Forth-Clyde line, roughly the southern Pictish boundary, reoccupying British Lowland Scotland and beginning construction of the more basic Antonine Wall. The tribes to the north had coalesced into two main bodies, the Caledonii and the Maeatae.

In 148, the Damnonii declared an independent kingdom, one of the 'four kingdoms of the north', although the other three probably remained in alliance with Rome for the most part, and the legions withdrew south by 163. The year 197 saw the defeat of the rival emperor, Albinus, and the single province was divided in two in the subsequent reorganisations.

AD 200-300

Emperor Severus visited the provinces to lead a campaign in person against the Caledonii and Maeatae in 209-211. He pursued a scorched earth policy to try and bring the ephemeral tribesmen either to a pitched battle or to surrender, neither of which actually occurred.

Following Severus' death, either immediately or shortly afterwards, Rome permanently abandoned Scotland. The tribes of Lowland Scotland were probably permanently established as client kingdoms by this time, with a few Roman forts north of Hadrian's Wall remaining occupied to keep an eye on them.

In 260 the emperor's lieutenant on the Rhine, Postumus, declared himself emperor of Germany, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. For the next thirteen years the whole of the north-western part of the empire was run as an independent but fully Roman state with its own series of emperors, being called the 'Empire of the Gallic Provinces' (Imperium Galliarum). The empire was defeated in battle in 274 and the northern provinces were returned to the rule of Rome itself.

There was a repeat of this in 286-296 as two further would-be emperors held the provinces, cutting them off from Rome.

AD 300-382

In 305-306 Emperor Constantius followed Severus' example and campaigned against the elusive Highland tribes, forcing them into a battle and ensuring a period of renewed peace. Britannia's two provinces were subdivided into four by Constantius' reorganisations. These were named (by no later than 314) as Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis.

The death of Emperor Constantine, and then his eldest son, Constantine II proved serious for Britain. Early fourth century peace and prosperity ebbed away. Emperor Constans made a sudden visit in early 343, suggesting an emergency (maybe warfare against the tribes north of the Wall) had brought him to Britannia at a most unusual time for Channel crossings. He could also have been responsible for the widespread refortification of cities which now occurred.

By 367, the Picts had formed into two groups: the Dicalydonae and the Verturiones. They were part of the Barbarian Conspiracy in which Britain was attacked on several fronts. They invaded yet again in 382, one of many such attacks now as Roman authority declined. This time they were defeated by the Roman commander, Magnus Maximus.

AD 382-409

Maximus revolted in 383 and invaded Gaul with a large army. In preparation, he is credited with setting up client kingdoms in Wales to protect the west coast from Irish raiders. Some local forts were also abandoned at this time. From this point all Britain's High Kings originated from within the country, and for this purpose Maximus is supposed to have selected Coel Hen as his replacement in Northern Britain.

Between circa 384-390 warfare flared up against the Picts again, and it apparently lasted 'for many years', although the situation was probably contained. In 398 the Romans led a campaign to defeat Pictish forces in the north, along with fighting off raiding Saxons and Irish Scotti.

Troops were withdrawn from Britain in 404/5 to form part of the Roman army that defeated a force of Goths and other barbarians in North Italy. This came in the same year as further Scotti raids took place on the south coast. The British provinces were relatively isolated and lacking in support from Rome in their fight against barbarian incursions, so from 406 the remaining army raised a series of their own claimants to the throne. Further raids convinced the British to expel all Roman officials, breaking ties that were never renewed.

AD 409-425

After the break with Rome came a period in which central administration apparently began to break down. There probably wasn't a single individual with enough power to hold the Romanised administrative structure together, so control began to drift out towards the local centres, with powerful regional figures beginning to rise to power.

Vortigern's climb to power in the west seems to confirm this trend, and also began its reverse. He apparently brought some semblance of unity back to the country, although in some regions he probably administered what were in effect petty kingdoms rather than provinces.

By now, Ceint (Kent) was probably independent, and Dumnonia had claimed the former Durotriges territory for its own, while Vortigern's Pagenses (Powys) lay next to the kingdoms which came to govern all Wales. The North was also fragmenting with Bernicia being the first subdivision created. The remaining Roman provinces would disappear within the next forty years at most, as a foederati revolt, widespread plague, civil war, and a barbarian invasion destroyed the country's cohesion.

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