Iron Age India

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Maurya dynasty which ruled the ancient kingdom of Magadha from around 321 BC to 185 BC.

Chandragupta Maurya can also be said to be the foremost of the ancient Indian rulers who ruled over the maximum amount of known territory in Bharatvarsha (India). His territories extended from what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan to the southern Indian state of Karnataka, and eastwards as far as Bengal and Assam.

He was succeeded by his son, Bindusara, around 297 BC.

Chandragupta's origins and early beginnings

There are varying stories about the origins of Chandragupta Maurya. While some bramhanical texts, such as the 'Puranas', consider him to have come from a lower caste (shudra), there are the Buddhist and Jain texts which speak of him as a member of the kshatriya (warrior) 'Moriya' clan which was related to the 'Shakyas'.

It has to be noted here that Buddhism and Jainism were patronised religions for everyone between the Nanda and Maurya dynasties inclusive, which may have caused some resentment amongst Vedic bramhanas.

Then there is a version which states that Chandragupta was the son of the last king of the Sisunaka dynasty, Mahanandin, and Mura, and whose second wife Sunanda was the mother of the Nanda brothers.

Apparently, with the help of a barber named Mahapadmananda, this second wife, Sunanda, murdered her husband and Chandragupta's brothers, and then installed Mahapadmananda as king. Mura escaped with her young son, who grew up and swore revenge.

Yet another source refers to Chandragupta's father as a commander in Mahapadmananda's forces, someone whom Mahapadmananda had murdered through an act of deceit.

Some texts have also noted Chandragupta as a grandson of the headman of a village of peacock tanners, while other ('Vishnu purana' and the play, 'Mudrarakshasa') refer to him as the illegitimate son of a woman named Mora and a Nanda prince (incidentally, the puranas also refer to the Nandas as offspring of low birth).

However, the most popular version is that Chandragupta belonged to a kshatriya (warrior) clan called 'Moriya' which originally ruled the forest kingdom of 'Pipallivana' (in today's Uttar Pradesh). Following her husband's death, Chandragupta's mother relocated to Patliputra where she gave birth to her son.

Whatever the truth, until unbiased and conclusive proof is unearthed, the authenticity of these texts will remain uncertain.

Chandragupta's Mauryan capital of Pataliputra (modern Patna) is shown here in computer-generated form as it would have appeared from the air in the fourth century BC

Chanakya

Chandragupta was noticed by a Brahmin teacher (Acharya) of the Taxilla (Takshashila) university, named Acharya Chanakya Vishnugupta (and also known as Kautilya), son of the famed scholar, Chanak, and a pundit in his own right.

To Vishnugupta, he seemed precocious as a child, displaying leadership qualities when with his friends which impressed the Taxillan teacher. Vishnugupta took the young Chandragupta under his tutelage, which is where his formative years took shape. Chandragupta was trained in political science, economics, philosophy, sword fighting, wrestling, archery and other martial arts. Vishnugupta therefore proved to be Chandragupta Maurya's mentor, philosopher and guide.

Vishnugupta is known for his legendary acumen in political science, so he can also be attributed to Chandragupta's ascension to power and its long and subsequent retention (Vishnugupta was later to serve as Chandragupta's advisor and as a minister in his court).

Another source tells us that Chanakya was a member of Dhanananda's court and that Chandragupta served in his army. Apparently after a falling out with the arrogant king on various occasions, both were expelled from his service, and they later colluded to overthrow Dhanananda.

There is a story in which Chanakya, while moving through the forests with Chandragupta, was pricked by the thorn of a jungle weed. Chanakya proceeded to pour sugar syrup all over the weed. When Chandragupta asked the reason, he was told that the syrup would attract the ants, which in turn would destroy the thorny weed down to its roots and clear the path for future travellers. Impressed by Chanakya's wisdom, Chandragupta became his disciple.

Whatever the truth might be, it is evident that with time, and with evidence which has been lost, the line between fact and fiction has become blurred.

The route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns are shown in this map, with them leading him from Europe to Egypt, into Persia, and across the vastness of eastern Iran as far as the Pamir mountain range (click or tap on map to view full sized)

Chandragupta's reign

Alexander, the Macedonian king, invaded India in 327 BC with with his Greek, Macedonian, and subject Central Asian armies. His entry was facilitated by King Ambhi of Taxila, ostensibly to use these armies against his arch rival, King Porus of Taxila (also known as Puru or Parvataka through other sources).

The Greeks soon marched over almost the entire upper half of India (except Magadha which, as per the Greco-Roman historian, Plutarch, was too powerful for Alexander to take on), thereby making the various smaller kingdoms his vassals (unless he ravaged them).

Apparently, Acharya Vishnugupta had approached the Nanda king, Dhanananda (Nandrum), for his help in raising an united army to fight against the Greeks. But stories say he was humiliated and turned away by an inebriated Nanda. This insult strengthened Vishnugupta's resolve to do away with the Nanda dynasty.

He, along with his pupil , Chandragupta, raised an army of teachers, students, monks, rebels, mercenaries, and tribals (Chandragupta was also said to be aided by a Kekaya king known as Parvataka who is usually equated with Porus of Paurava).

Alexander meanwhile had departed and had placed his general, Seleucus Nicator, as chief satrap of the Indian subcontinent. A power vacuum was created by Alexander's departure. Seleucus had based himself in Central Asia (in Bactria), with Philippus as satrap of the upper Indus valley.

Chandragupta initially started on his path in the lower Indus valley, which he liberated. He then assisted revolts from several Indian satraps which also led to the assassination of Phillipus in 325 BC. Soon northern India was under Chandragupta's control.

Chandragupta's victorious armies then started eating into Magadha's surrounding territories, until they finally conquered the powerful Magadha kingdom itself (after an internal conflict which was apparently orchestrated by Vishnugupta).

The decadent Nanda king, Dhanananda, was either killed or exiled, as per various sources. The Nanda empire collapsed in spite of the Nandas apparently having wise ministers such as Varuchi, Katyayana, and Shaktaar, and a corrupt commander of forces called Bhadrabahu.

Chandragupta Maurya was crowned king of Magadha in 321 BC.

He immediately declared his mentor, Vishnugupta, to be his prime minister. Vishnugupta however retained the Nanda's loyal minister, Katyayana Rakshas, in his original post (after much persuasion) and took on the role of an elder statesman and advisor.

The Ganges plain saw the rise of the first northern Indian kingdoms from around the sixteenth century BC onwards

Chandragupta then embarked on his conquest of the rest of India, starting from central India. He overcame all opposition in territory reaching to the north of the River Narmada. Plutarch's version of the story states that his armies numbered around four million troops. Pliny has Chandragupta commanding infantry numbering six million, along with thirty thousand cavalry and nine thousand war elephants.

Seleucus Nicator himself led his Greek armies in 305 BC to conquer his lost territories. But this time around Chandragupta proved more than a match for him. Seleucus was forced to enter into a treaty with him whereby he surrendered his territories of Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan), Paropamisadae (Kamboja), Aria (Herat), and Kabura (Kabul).

He even entered into a matrimonial alliance with Chandragupta, where in one of Seleucus' daughters was betrothed to the Indian king.

In return, Chandragupta assured him his support in consolidating Central Asia, along with a gift of five hundred war-trained elephants. Subsequent relations between the Greeks and the Mauryans appear to have been cordial.

Seleucus even appointed Megasthenes as his ambassador to Chandragupta's court. Megasthenes later penned the famous travelogue, 'Indica', recounting his travels and his stay in India. Chandragupta has been identified by the name 'Sandrokottos' in contemporary Greek texts.

Chandragupta's reign and Mauryan administration in Arthashastra

Chandragupta was known to be a benevolent ruler, one who not only extended the borders of his empire but who also ruled it with considerable prudence for almost a quarter of a century under the able guidance of his aide, Vishnugupta. Trade, agriculture and commerce were based on some of the principles and rules which were enunciated by Vishnugupta, and the country prospered under Mauryan rule.

During his lifetime, Vishnugupta authored the famed treatise, 'Arthashastra', and also 'Nitishastra' under the pseudonym of Kautilya. It essays the tenets of ruling a country and concentrates (besides the politics), on its military, security, economic, social, and moral facets.

The various territories which made up the satrapy of the Northern Indus (Punjab) which was centred over the mighty River Indus, alongside those of Gandhara, would go on to form the heartland of Indo-Greek control of the east in the remaining centuries BC

The Arthshastra places the king as the supreme head of state. His main duty was to ensure the welfare and happiness of his subjects. He was to work almost eighteen to nineteen hours a day and was to be at the service of his people, courtiers, and officers at any time of any hour (the king was to listen to the reports of his spies and officers even whilst being dressed).

The council of ministers consisted of between three to twelve members, each being the head of a department. Then there was the state council which could have twelve, sixteen or twenty members.

The stare bureaucracy consisted of the 'Sannidhata' (head of the treasury), 'Samaharta' (chief revenue collector), 'Purohita' (head priest), 'Senapati' (commander of the army), 'Pratihara' (chief of the palace guard), 'Antarvamisika' (head of the harem guards), 'Durgapala' (governor of the fort), 'Antahala' (governor of the frontier), 'Pair' (governor of the capital), 'Nyayadhisha' (chief justice), and 'Prasasta' (police chief).

Then there were the 'Tirthas' and 'Amatyas', ie. officers in charge of accounts (controlled by the chief minister, 'Mahaamatya') of the treasury, records, mines, mints, commerce, excise, agriculture, tolls, public utilities, armoury, etc.

Main Sources

Altekar, A S - State and Government in Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Ltd

Majumdar, R C - Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Ltd, 1987

Prasad, L - Studies in Indian History, Cosmos Bookhive, Gurgaon, 2000

Thapar, Romila - Penguin History of India, Volume 1, Penguin Books, London, 1990

Text copyright © Abhijit Rajadhyaksha. An original feature for the History Files.