Iron Age India

Chandragupta's reign and Mauryan administration in Arthashastra (continued)

The governors or viceroys of provinces were called 'mahamatras' and if the designation was held by a prince then he was knows as 'Kumara mahamatra'. Assisting them were the 'Yutas' (tax collectors), 'Rajukas' (revenue collectors), and 'Sthanikas' and'Gopas' (district officers). Then there was the local village head called 'Gramika' under whom the village assembly operated.

The civil courts were the 'Dharmasthiya' and criminal courts were the 'Kantakshodhana'. Arthashastra also stresses an efficient espionage system. Spies operated not only in the city but outside, in foreign regions as well.

The defence forces consisted of the navy, infantry, cavalry, war chariots and the war elephants. There were hospitals not just for people but for animals. There were census records covering births and deaths. There were wells, gardens, tanks, amusement places, and temples being erected in various parts of the city.

The royal share of the land's produce was called the 'Bhaga' and was generally one-sixth (16.6%) of the total. The shepherds and livestock breeders were taxed. Also, there was the forest tax, a tax on intoxicants, a mine tax, a fishery tax, an irrigation tax, etc. Seaborne trade was controlled by the state. The state also owned factories producing cloth, etc.

Kautilya has stated that the collection of tax should be akin to a bee collecting honey from the flower, just taking the minimum which is required, negating the chances of tax evasion.

Every city was divided into wards and further groups of houses. The roads measured 1,851 kilometres in total length and were quite wide according to the accounts by Megasthenes. There were trees planted on both sides of the road.

Arthashastra also enunciated the ideal relations between a father and son, brother and sister, husband and wife, teacher and student, etc.

The kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its power around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the south-east, encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was on the verge of collapse, while around the northern and eastern borders dwelt various tribes which would eventually contribute to the downfall of the Greeks - the Sakas and Greater Yuezhi (click or tap on map to view full sized)

There is a section which deals in inter-state relations. They were to be based on the four traditional expedients: 'Saama' (conciliation, alliance), 'Daama' (gifts, subsidies), 'Bheda' (sowing dissension in hostile states), and 'Danda' (aggressive action).

There are also some suggestions for individuals:

• Citizens need to follow their duties diligently in order to ensure the welfare of the state.

• The king and his subjects should exercise control over their instincts and desires. One may indulge in cardinal pleasures, but in limitation.

• Only cowards are afraid of defeat and one should not hesitate in attempting a mission (one shouldn't shun karma).

• A king should be religious in nature, respectful towards his elders, teachers and courtiers. He should refrain from tyranny. He should follow a pragmatic, prudent and conciliatory approach towards issues.

• To achieve social goals, one has to forego personal interests. Politics shouldn't be self-serving but should be for the welfare of the state.

There are some suggestions for the state:

• An egalitarian society is one in which there are equal opportunities for all.

• According to Kautilya, there should be an efficient management of resources. It is essential that the state keeps an eye on the occupation of excess land by landlords and the unauthorised use of land. Ideally the state should monitor the most important and vital resource - land.

• The state should always take care of agriculture. Government machinery should be directed towards the implementation of projects aimed at supporting and nurturing the various processes, beginning from the sowing of seeds to the cutting and supply of the harvest.

• The nation should embark on constructing forts and cities. These complexes would protect the country from invasions and provide internal security. The cities would serve as giant markets, increasing the revenue of the state.

• Internal trade was more important to Kautilya than external trade. At each point of the entry of goods, there was to be a minimal amount of tax collected. A country should have a self-sufficient economy and shouldn't depend completely on foreign trade.

• The laws of the state should be the same for all, irrespective of a person's position in society.

• The security of citizens in peace time is paramount, because the state is the saviour of its subjects. Criminals and antisocial elements should be kept under check with the help of spies. Destitute women should be protected by society from exploitation.

This late-period Sunga terracotta plaque from the first century BC depicts the goddess Durga and her attendants

Kautilya has suggested a society in which the people are not slaves of material pleasures. Control over one's sensual organs is essential for success in any endeavour. Spiritual development is essential for the internal strength and the character of the individual. Material pleasures and achievements are always secondary to the spiritual development of society and the country in general.

The task of a king is to strive for the welfare of his people day in and day out. The administration of the kingdom should be foremost for the king. The happiness of his subjects is the happiness of the king. Their welfare should be his welfare.

New colonies should be established for the augmentation of resources. Also advocated is the development of already annexed colonies.

Vishnugupta Chanakya is often termed India's Machiavelli. He trained Chandragupta into the valiant warrior which he was, and acted as his trusted eyes and ears, warding off the nefarious designs of his enemies. It can also be said that Chandragupta Maurya could embark on his long war campaigns knowing full well that the administration of his kingdom was safe in the hands of his elderly and competent statesman, Chanakya Vishnugupta.

By the period between 100-50 BC the Greek kingdom of Bactria had fallen and the remaining Indo-Greek territories (shown in white) had been squeezed towards eastern Punjab, while India was partially fragmented (click or tap on map to view full sized)

Vishnugupta remained the advisor for Magadha even after Chandragupta's reign, assisting his son, Bindusara.

There is a story that Vishnugupta had been feeding Chandragupta small quantities of poison with a glass of milk since childhood in order to make him immune to poison. He continued that practice after Chandragupta became king.

One day, Chandragupta's wife, who was nine months pregnant and was unaware of the poisoned glass of milk, drank it. Frothing at the mouth, she collapsed and died. On hearing the news, Vishnugupta immediately went to her and ordered her womb to be opened. The unborn baby was extracted and the child was named Bindusara (bindu literally meaning 'a drop', in this case a drop of poison).

Bindusara also had a minister named Subandhu who disliked Vishnugupta immensely. He poisoned Bindusara's mind against Vishnugupta, implying that Vishnugupta Chanakya was responsible for the murder of his mother. On hearing this, Bindusara became very angry with Chanakya. It is said that Chanakya, on hearing that the king was angry with him, donated all his wealth to the poor, widows and orphans and sat meditating on a dung heap, preparing to die by total abstinence from food and drink.

Bindusara meanwhile heard the full story of the circumstances of his birth from the nurses who'd cared for him, and rushed to beg forgiveness from Chanakya. But Chanakya refused to relent. Bindusara then went back to Subandhu and vented his fury on him. Subhandhu implored the king for time so as to beg for forgiveness from Chanakya. But Subandhu had other plans.

He wanted once and for all to end his arch rival's influence. So he arranged for a ceremony of respect but, unnoticed by anyone, he slipped a smouldering charcoal ember inside the dung heap. The dung heap caught fire, and Acharya Chanakya Vishnugupta, the man behind the Mauryan empire was burnt to ashes.

The death of Chandragupta

Chandragupta embraced Jainism during his lifetime. Later, he is said to have abdicated his throne in favour of Bindusara.

He then retired to the forests of Shravana Belgola (near Mysore, in Karnataka state), along with his religious guru, Bhadrabahu, and several followers, where he renounced his life after a fast unto death as per Jain traditions.

A section of a manuscript showing the Vedas which date back at least three thousand years, although surviving written forms are more recent

Bindusara

Bindusara succeeded his father in 301 BC (or, alternatively, 297 BC). He was also known as Amitraghata (slayer of the foes), or Amitrochates to the Greeks.

He was said to be a competent ruler who successfully consolidated the vast empire which he had inherited. He is said to have maintained friendly relations with the southern kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras.

The only exception was the hostile kingdom of Kalinga, which was only overcome later, by his son Ashoka. Tibetan history attributes to him the conquest of the land between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. But there is no conclusive proof to establish that as fact.

He is said to have been be a man of eclectic tastes, and to have asked the Greek Seleucid king, Antiochus I, to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist (a Greek teacher of philosophy and rhetoric). The Greek ambassador who was present in his court at the time was Deimakos.

Buddhist texts reveal that he was deeply interested in the Ajivika sect (the Ajivikas were a sect of wandering ascetics who believed that rebirth was not according to one's karma (deeds), but a matter of 'niyati', meaning destiny or fate).

Bindusara had many sons, but the most prominent amongst them were Sushima, governor of Taxilla, and Ashoka, governor of Ujjain. The latter succeeded him twenty-five years after he ascended the throne, around 272 BC (or 269 BC). Bindusara's death caused a brief power struggle between Ashoka and Shisiuma and the other brothers, but it was Ashoka who gained the throne.

Main Sources

Altekar, A S - State and Government in Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Ltd

Majumdar, R C - Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Ltd, 1987

Prasad, L - Studies in Indian History, Cosmos Bookhive, Gurgaon, 2000

Thapar, Romila - Penguin History of India, Volume 1, Penguin Books, London, 1990

Text copyright © Abhijit Rajadhyaksha. An original feature for the History Files.