European Kingdoms

Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Rival Eastern Emperors in Trebizond (AD 1204-1461)

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From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

With the defeat of the 'Dynasty of the Angeli' by the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople in 1204, Latin rulers governed the city and much of the former empire, backed by Venice and France. The leader of the Fourth Crusade also set up other minor Crusader states in Greece, but other territories were lost, including the Albanian principality of Arbanon.

The established Eastern Roman authorities (without the emperor himself) withdrew to Nicæa in Anatolia, but rival claimants also established holdings in Trebizond, Epirus, and Thessalonica so that, at one point, there were four claimants to the Eastern Roman throne, as well as the Bulgar and Serb states which also claimed dominance over it.

This specific rival powerbase involved the Pontic Greek cities and regions of Trebizond, Sinope, and Paphlagonia, a narrow strip of territory along the eastern half of the Black Sea's Anatolian coast. Its rulers were the Comneni, formerly supplying emperors to the 'Dynasty of the Comneni'. Now they referred to themselves as the 'Grand Comneni', having set up their rival powerbase with the assistance of Queen Thamar 'the Great' of Georgia.

Trebizond was the last of the Eastern Roman territories to fall to the Ottoman empire, even after Palaeologus-controlled Constantinople itself, earning it the occasional title of the last Greek empire. In reality, long before it fell it was an isolated and increasingly reduced territory along the eastern side of Anatolia's Black Sea coast, buoyed by alliances and intermarriage but entirely unable to withstand eventual conquest by the increasingly powerful Ottomans.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the John De Cleene Archive, from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), from The Despotate of Epiros, Donald McGillivray Nicol (Blackwell & Mott, 1957), and from External Links: History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Byzantine Empire, CWC Oman (Fisher Unwin, 1892, and available via Heritage History), and The Seljuq Campaign against the Crimea, A C S Peacock (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol 16, No 2, Jul 2006, pp 133-149, available via JSTOR).)

1204 - 1222

'Grand Comneni' successor against Latins.

1206 - 1207

As the brother of and military commander for Alexius I Comnenus, David Comnenus has successfully expanded this Pontic state to include much of Paphlagonia so that Trebizond's holdings now border those of Nicæa.

When the Fourth Crusade took control of Constantinople in AD 1204, with the help of the Venetians, they inherited a reduced Eastern Roman empire (click or tap on map to view full sized)

David's rapid westwards expansion now leads to direct conflict with Nicæa, which is consolidating its own power in Anatolia. Towards the end of 1206 and into early 1207, David attempts to attack the region of Prousias. Theodorus Lascaris successfully defends his newly-won realm and Comnenus gains no territory.

Instead the Comneni are constrained to content themselves with the narrow bounds of their Pontic realm, where their descendants reign in relative obscurity for three hundred years as emperors of Trebizond.

1220 - 1221

The rise of Jalal al-Din Mingburnu in Khwarazm poses a challenge for the Mongols. The two sides come together at the Battle of the Indus and Jalal ad-Din is defeated. Khwarazm is occupied between Samarkand and the Indus, and Persia also falls.

Under the leadership of Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, and Dandolo, doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from its original purpose, instead ending up storming the walls of Constantinople and setting up a Latin kingship there

Jalal al-Din Mingburnu is an exile for a time, but returns to reclaim a reduced Khwarazm which is based around northern Mesopotamia, western Persia, and the lower Caucasus, with some support from Trebizond, while the Il-Khans rule the rest of Khwarazm on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea.

1222 - 1235

Son-in-law. Held off Seljuqs.

1224

Trebizond is attacked by one 'Sultan Melik' who remains hard to identify. Melik's forces besiege the city even though it is demonstrably well-provisioned and both it and its approaches have been fortified so that even Melik's approach costs him casualties.

A night-time attempt to storm the walls ends in disaster when a massive thunderstorm causes flash floods which sweep away men and materials. Melik is captured and is treated with courtesy and respect enough to guarantee Trebizond's safety.

A stone relief of Seljuq cavalry, which swept through Iran, northern Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia in the eleventh century

However, this Melik cannot be matched against any known ruler of the time, while the 'sea walls' of Trebizond which are referenced here have not yet been built (as pointed out in the analysis by A C S Peacock).

The account may be a mashing together of four separate events which take place over the next century, but at its core it could relate to less direct Seljuq attempts in the Black Sea to weaken Trebizond, presumably under the Il-Khan ruler, Tolui.

1235 - 1238

Son of Alexius I. Possibly junior emperor for 3 years.

1238 - 1263

Brother. A relatively obscure reign.

1258

Hulegu and his Il-Khan Mongols begin the campaign which sees him enter the Islamic lands of Mesopotamia on behalf of Mongke. He takes Khwarazm and Mosul before capturing Baghdad in 1258.

The Abbasid caliph and his family are massacred when no army is produced to defend them. The Silk Road is diverted northwards as a result of the destruction and instability, terminating on the Black Sea coast at Trebizond and bringing with it wealth enough to help secure the empire's continued independence.

Inheriting the Persian section of the Mongol empire through his father, Tolui, Hulegu Khan led the devastating attack which ended the Islamic caliphate at Baghdad, but he also brought the eastern Persian territories under his firm control (he is seen here with his wife)

1260

While Manuel has secured for himself a good military reputation, he has seldom taken steps to expand the empire aside from securing the ancient city of Sinope in 1254.

Now General Michael VIII Palæologus takes hold of the throne of Nicæa, and the young John Lascaris is entirely sidelined, his eyes are put out, and he is exiled to a dungeon in which he remains until his death thirty years later.

However, the outraged leaders of the various Latin and a target="_top" href="GreeceByzantium.htm">Eastern Roman rival territories are no match for Michael's forces when they meet in battle. His victory is complete.

1261

The Nicæan-Latin Wars are not concluded when Michael VIII Palæologus recaptures Constantinople from his base in Nicæa, as Achaia and Athens are still occupied by Latin rulers. Constantinople falls during a surprise attack when much of the garrison is raiding Nicæan territory.

The Latins are helped in their largely successful evacuation by the Venetian fleet, although they persist in retaining their claim to the throne (held by Philip de Courtenay in 1281).

The able but ruthless Michael VIII Palæologus seized the throne of Nicæa, blinded and imprisoned its young ruler, and then made the most of the tactical blunders of his Latin opponents to launch a successful liberation of occupied Constantinople to restored the Eastern Roman empire to its rightful capital

Michael VIII is able to claim Constantinople as his seat from which to command the reduced Eastern Roman empire, as the capital of the Palaeologus. Manuel of Trebizond maintains his claim to be emperor even so, as do his immediate successors.

1263 - 1266

Son. Died young.

1266 - 1280

Half-brother. Assumed 'Megas Komnenos' as a title.

1280 - 1284

Brother. A troubled reign. Deposed by Theodora.

1282

In the year in which John II officially abandons his claim to the Palaeologus throne in Constantinople in order that he might marry the daughter of Michael VIIII, all of the scheming with Venice by Charles of Anjou to build up a retaliatory force which will capture Constantinople from the Eastern Romans comes to nothing.

1284 - 1285

Half-sister. Usurped throne, but fled in 1285.

1284 - 1285

Having seen off a threat to the throne by his dethroned brother, George, John II is himself dethroned by his half-sister. She rules for a short period of time in circumstances which are not well recorded, before suddenly fleeing Trebizond.

A silver asper which was issued during the short reign of Eastern Roman Empress Theodora of Trebizond, wearing a crown which is shown differently from those of equivalent male rulers on their coins

1285 - 1297

Restored. Died, perhaps in battle.

1297 - 1330

Son. Enjoyed a period of wealth and influence.

1330

The death to bubonic plague of Alexius II after a longer reign of relative peace and prosperity is followed by a destabilising round of assassinations and usurpations in the imperial court. Two factions struggle for dominance: the pro-Roman scholaroi and the pro-Pontic amytzantarantes.

1330 - 1332

Son. Ruled 15 months. Captured Epirus. Plague death.

1332

Son. Ruled 8 months, aged 8. Executed 1333.

1332 - 1340

Uncle. Seized throne. Brought temporary stability.

c.1330s

The shadowy principality of Gothia is first mentioned around this time, with the earliest date being offered by the later historian, Theodore Spandounes, falling around the 1330s or 1340s when he notes a prince of Gothia during the reign of Andronicus III of the Palaeologus between 1328-1341. Its known ties are with Trebizond.

Crimea's southern coast largely consists of mountains and sharp descents towards the sea line, all of which was inhabited by the Tauri and then the Tauric Ostrogoths

1340 - 1341

Wife. Illegitimate dau of Andronicus III. Abdicated.

1341

Son of John II. Intended to marry Irene, but swept aside by Anna.

1341 - 1342

Dau of Alexius II. Saw off Michael but murdered.

1342 - 1344

Son of Michael. Weak and lazy. Dethroned.

1344 - 1349

Restored. Abdicated in favour of Alexius.

1349 - 1390

Nephew. Restored court unity.

1351

With the Eastern Roman civil war having been concluded, Emperor John Cantacuzenes of the Palaeologus has realised the threat posed by the Ottoman Turks. His attempts to form a united front alongside Serbia and Bulgaria are rebuffed, however. This is despite Bulgaria's Tsar Ivan Alexander already having lost a son and brother to Ottoman raids.

The Ottomans directly challenged the most powerful of Europe's Mediterranean empires in the form of the Venetian republic, leading to a series of vicious wars over the course of three centuries which are known as the Ottoman-Venetian Wars

1355 - 1358

Alexius III has already begun strengthening the frontier against the various small Turkic principalities of Anatolia. However, his attempts are not entirely successful, with him suffering a heavy defeat in 1355.

A raid on Matzouka by Emir Hajji Amir of Chalybia is neutralised through diplomacy, and the emir is bought off by marrying Theodora in 1358, sister of Alexius.

1390 - 1416

Son. Allied himself to Timurids.

1402

The great Timur defeats, captures, and imprisons Sultan Bayezid of the Ottoman empire at the Battle of Ankara, making Anatolia another province of Timurid Persia. The defeat provides Trebizond with some relief from Ottoman pressure and a period of peace.

1416 - 1429

Son. Murdered by John's supporters.

1429 - 1459

Son. Death obscure.

1429

The writing is on the wall for Trebizond as the Ottomans continue to grow in power, confidence, and victories. John IV spends much of his reign building alliances and securing resources for the oncoming storm. He also gives a daughter in marriage to White Sheep Emir Uzun Hassan bin Ali in return for promised support.

The White Sheep emirate, or Ak Qoyunlu confederation, at its height controlled a great area of territory, stretching from Azerbaijan in the north to the Persian Gulf and eastern Iran (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1453

Constantinople, capital and heart of the fading Eastern Roman empire, is captured by Mehmed II of the Ottoman empire, and a large area of Greece becomes an Ottoman province. The loss is viewed as a disaster for the Christian world, despite Rome's frequent differences with the Orthodox church in Constantinople over the centuries, and with its emperors.

1456

While Sultan Mehmed II is laying siege to Belgrade, the Ottoman governor of Amasya attacks Trebizond. He is defeated but still manages to take many prisoners and extracts a heavy tribute.

1460

Nephew. Quickly deposed by David. Executed.

1459 - 1461

Brother of John IV. End of empire. Executed.

1461

Following a lightening campaign which takes David by surprise, Trebizond falls to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II after a month-long siege. Emperor David Komnenos surrenders and is taken into captivity along with his family. He and his sons, plus a nephew, are all executed in 1463.

The fall of Constantinople not only ended the last vestiges of the Roman empire, now dating back almost two millennia in its many forms, but it also opened up south-eastern Europe to the Ottoman Turks

Coming eight years after the fall of the Palaeologus in Constantinople, this marks the final end of the Eastern Roman empire, although the allied principality of Theodoro in Crimea does last another fourteen years.