Gaelic Kingdoms

Kings of Dal Riada

Natives of the Ulster region of Ireland, the Dal Riada Scotti came under pressure from the powerful Clan Ui Neill, from whose ranks were drawn the High Kings of Ireland. From the latter end of the fifth century this extended clan of Scotti migrated en masse to settle on the western coast of Pictland, in the modern region of Argyllshire. The area had been home to the Epidii tribe during the Roman period, but the newcomers quickly founded their own kingdom, settling Dunadd as their capital.

Dal Riadan control thereafter expanded in a piecemeal fashion, with stops and starts as they were alternately made vassals of the Picts or became their overlords. Perthshire fell to them first, then Lothian, after which, hemmed into the south by the powerful Northumbrians, they turned north, gaining Mar and entering the Highlands. This was the heartland of the Pictish kingdom, and it was here that they faced their stiffest opposition. It was a furious battle, much of which has been lost to history, and one that they looked like losing until disaster befell the Picts in 839. The Scotti were now in command of all of Pictland and they would gradually to create the modern country of Scotland.

c.485? - 500

Reuda

c.500? - 501

Fergus mac Erc

501 - 507

Domangrat mac Fergus

507 - 537

Comgall mac Domangrat

537 - 558

Gabrán mac ?Domangrat

558 - 574

Conall mac Comgall

563

St Columba, a descendant of the high kings of Ireland, follows in the footsteps of the Irish Scotti to spread the Celtic Church into Dal Riada and Northern Pictland. Arriving with twelve companions, he is granted land on Iona where he founds a monastery in order to introduce the Picts along the western coast to Christianity. Visiting the king, he wins his respect and subsequently plays a major role not just in winning converts for the church but also as a diplomat.

573

The Dal Riadans are defeated in battle against the powerful King Brudei of the Northern Picts.

574 - 607

Aedan mac Gabrán

m Domlech, Pictish dau. of Maelgwyn Gwynedd.

c.582

Ynys Manau is taken by the Dal Riada Scotti, and ruled by a client king or lesser member of the ruling family.

584

Aedan's son, Gartnait, inherits the Northern Pictish throne.

603

Aedan invades the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia and attacks King Æthelfrith at the Battle of Degsastan. By fighting and defeating Dal Riada, Æthelfrith secures the alliance of Dal Riada's enemies, the southern Picts. His northern flank is now safe and he turns his attention south and west.

607

Cineadh Cerr (Kenneth the Left Handed)

Ruled for three months.

608 - 620?

Echoid Find mac Aedan

620? - 623?

Kenneth mac Conall

623? - 629?

Ferchar? (Fergus) mac Cu?

629? - 642

Domnal Brecc mac Echoid

Known in Welsh as Dyfnwal Frych. Killed at Strathcarron.

Internecine wars between Cenéls Loairn & nGabráin.

642? - 678

Fergar (Fota/ Fearchar Fada) Longus?

Ruled all Dal Riada, from Clan Baedan (d.697).

664 - 680

Malduinus / Maelduin

Ruled jointly or just a section of Dal Riada?.

678

Eochal Lyus?

Negarth mac Coneval

Alrinch Ellac mac Fergar Longus

c.697 Amberkeletus (Ainbhceallach) mac Fearchar (d.724)?

--- mac Fergar Longus

Sealbhach mac Fearchar, killed Amberkeletus?

M. mac Alrinch?

--- mac M.

--- mac Eochal Lyus

Fergus mac ?

His son, Angus, rules the Pictish kingdom for a time.

700 - 719

Selbach mac ?Eogan

719 - 721

?

721 - 741

The kingdom temporarily collapses and three Cenéla dissolve into at least seven families.

732

Mordacus / Muredach

Possibly claimed the throne for a short time.

741 - 748

Divided kings defeated by Picts. Dal Riada is re-united over next few years.

748 - 778

Aed Finn mac Eochu

768

Aed Finn invades Pictland and re-establishes Dal Riadan independence.

758? - ?

Eochal Ueneuofus mac E*albi

Dunegal mac Selbach

Alpin mac Eochal

Died 834.

778 - 781

Fergus

King of Dal Riada & Pictland. Father of Constantine of Pictland.

781 - 792

Donald mac Constantine

(Donncorci.)

789? - 807

Conall mac Tadc / Taidg

Ex-Pictish king.

807 - 811

Conall mac Aedan

811 - 834

Dal Riata ruled by Picts through natural succession.

834 - ?

Talorcan

c.836 - 839

Eoganan / Uven mac Angus

Of Pictland.

? - 839

Aedmac Boanta

Brother(?) and therefore heir to the throne.

839

The line of descent of Pictish kings is broken when the Pictish army is destroyed and Eoganan is killed by Vikings. Pictland eventually merges with Dal Riada through intermarriage to become Scotland, although a few Picts still appear to rule the North for a time.

839 - 850

Kinet (Kenneth) I mac Alpin

First king of Alba (Scotland).

843

Kenneth rules from Scone (Fortriu, modern Forteviot), capital of the Southern Picts.

850

After killing the final Pictish ruler (an event known as McAlpin's Treason), Kenneth rules Pictland and unites most of the country, a feat which is extended to cover all Scotland by subsequent kings.

Kings of Scotland
AD 850 - 1603

The House of Alpin retained the Pictish custom of passing the crown down through matrilineal descent. In modern lists, Constantine I is used for the Pictish Constantine mac Fergus (789-820).

(Additional information on the links with Strathclyde by Mick Baker.)

House of Alpin

850 - 860

Kenneth I mac Alpin

860 - 863

Donald I mac Alpin

Brother.

863 - 877

Constantine II mac Kenneth

Son of Kenneth.

877 - 878

Aed mac Kenneth

Brother.

878 - 889

Giric I

Joint rulers.

878 - 889

Eochaid / Eochu

King of Strathclyde (878-889).

889 - 900

Donald II mac Constantine

King of Strathclyde (889-900). Killed by Danes.

900 - 942

Constantine (Constantinus) III mac Aed

Son of Aed.

934 - 937

The grand alliance including the Scots, Northumbrian Danes at York, Dublin Danes, and the Welsh of Gwynedd and Cumbria, mass their forces north of the Humber in a bold attempt to destroy Æthelstan of Wessex. The plan fails, however, when the West Saxons and Mercians of the south destroy the alliance at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937.

942 - 954

Malcolm (Milcolumbus) I mac Donald

Son of Donald. Killed near Fetteresso.

954 - 962

Indulf mac Constantine

Son of Constantine. King of Strathclyde (943-954).

962 - 967

Duff (Dub`h) mac Malcolm

Son of Malcolm. King of Strathclyde (954-962).

967 - 971

Culen (Colin / Cuilean Finn) mac Indulf

Son of Indulf. 'White Colin'.

971 - 995

Kenneth II

Son of Malcolm I. Lost the Highlands to Olav (971-977).

995 - 997

Constantine IV the Bald

Son of Culen.

997 - 1005

Kenneth III

Son of Duff. killed in civil war near Loch Earn.

997 - 1005

Giric II

1005 - 1034

Malcolm II

Son of Kenneth II.

1018 - 1034

Malcolm is usually credited with being the ruler who finally subdues Strathclyde and appends it to the Scottish crown. The exact date is unknown.

House of Atholl

The reign of Duncan mac Crinan, grandson of Malcolm II, is littered with defeats and poor rule as the king is defeated by his own people and by the English. In a vain attempt to restore his prestige, Duncan engaged on a Royal Progress through the land of Moray, where MacBeth was sub-king. This proved to be a grave error of judgement as MacBeth and his men rose up and kill Duncan at Pitgaveny.

1034 - 1040

Duncan I

Inherited the crown of Strathclyde.

House of Alpin

MacBeth, at the head of the disgruntled men of Moray, rose up and defeated the discredited Duncan, killing him on 14 August 1040 at Bothngouane (now Pitgaveny) near Elgin. MacBeth was a good and strong king; a far cry from the evil villain portrayed in Shakespeare's work of fiction, reigning for a long seventeen years.

1040 - 1057

Macbeth / Mac Bethad mac Findláich

Grandson-in-law of Kenneth III. Killed by Malcolm III.

1046

Siward, earl of Northumbria and former father-in-law to Duncan, succeeds in momentarily expelling MacBeth from Lothian, and briefly installing Duncan's brother Maldred on the Scottish throne. MacBeth swiftly recovers his lost lands.

1054

Siward and Malcolm Ceann Mor set off on a campaign to defeat MacBeth. They do so at Dunsinnen, wresting Lothian and possibly Strathclyde from him, but they fail to depose him. Ceann Mor is set up as Malcolm III, at least of Cumbria (Strathclyde), a client king of the English.

1057

Malcolm Ceann Mor defeats and kills MacBeth at Lumphanon. Lulach, MacBeth's stepson, becomes king. He reigns for just seven months before being slain by Malcolm.

1057 - 1058

Lulach

Step-son of Macbeth. Reigned for seven months.

House of Atholl

1058 - 1093

Malcolm III Canmore / Ceann Mor

Son of Duncan I.

1066

The Norman invasion of England forces Margaret of Wessex (later known as St Margaret, or Margaret of Scotland) to flee to the court of Malcolm III. She is the sister of Edgar the Atheling, Anglo-Saxon king in name only after the death of Harold Godwinson at Hastings. About four years later, Malcolm marries her and the royal couple become parents to three later kings and five other children. Margaret introduces more court ceremony and also founds Dunfermline Abbey.

1093 - 1094

Donald III Bane

Son of Duncan I.

1094

Duncan II

Son of Malcolm III.

1094 - 1097

Donald III Bane

Second reign.

1098 - 1107

Edgar

Son of Malcolm III, the first of those by Margaret of Scotland.

1107 - 1124

Alexander I

Brother. Son-in-law of Henry I of England.

1114

Alexander inaugurates the construction of Scone Abbey on the ancient site of the coronation of Scottish kings.

1124 - 1153

David I the Saint

Brother.

1133

A Norman invasion from England forces King Thorkell to flee Dublin and Ireland altogether for the safety of the Scottish Highlands. In Scotland itself, King David invites large numbers of Normans to settle, build Norman castles, help him control some of the worst in-fighting amongst the lords, and help turn Scotland into a flourishing, multi-ethnic European kingdom.

c.1134

Although it had been founded as a small settlement in the eleventh century, Roxburgh, near Kelso on the Scottish Borders, and nestling on the banks of the River Teviot, catches the special attention of King David. Choosing it as his powerbase, he gives the town a royal charter, and builds a castle there. Main roads, houses and shops are added, along with several churches, all within a great defensive embankment that protects the city on the only side that is not defended by water. Most of the king's great charters are issued from Roxburgh. It is the Edinburgh of its day, becoming one of the wealthiest cities in Scotland, and one of its four main urban centres, along with Berwick, Stirling and Edinburgh. Its location is ideal to exploit the Scottish-held trading port at Berwick. Today, only a few scant remains of its castle survive.

1139

The title of earl of Northumberland falls vacant until Stephen of England is pressured into appointing a new earl by King David.

1153 - 1165

Malcolm IV the Maiden

Grandson of David I.

1165 - 1214

William I the Lion

Grandson of David I.

1214 - 1249

Alexander II

Son of William I.

1215 - 1217

The barons of Northumberland and York pay homage to Alexander during the First Barons' War of England.

1226

The Isle of Man passes from the overlordship of the Scandinavian crown to that of the Scottish crown.

1249 - 1286

Alexander III

Son of Alexander II by his second wife. Died in an accident.

1265 - 1275

The Isle of Man is annexed by and falls under the control of Scotland. From this point the island is controlled directly from either Scotland or England, as the two nations vie for power.

1286 - 1290

Margaret Maid of Norway

Granddaughter. Dau. of Eric II of Norway.

1290 - 1292

The 'First Interregnum' in Scotland is usually measured from the point of Margaret's death in 1290, but the date of Alexander's death in 1286 is also sometimes used. The difference revolves around the acceptance or otherwise of whether Margaret had officially been queen, despite being uncrowned. The recognition by the Scottish parliament of her as queen would suggest that she should be accepted, whether crowned or not. Her death marks the end of the House of Atholl as there are no further living descendants. Instead, with the threat of dynastic war looming over the country, Scotland is governed by guardians while the English king, Edward I, is invited to adjudicate over the succession. With no one to stand in his way, he also becomes Scotland's overlord.

1290 - 1292

William Fraser

Guardian of Scotland. Bishop of St Andrews. Died 1297.

1290 - 1292

Robert Wishart

Guardian of Scotland. Bishop of Glasgow. Died 1302.

1290 - 1292

John II Comyn 'the Black'

Guardian of Scotland. Lord of Badenoch.

1290 - 1292

James Stewart

Guardian of Scotland. Fifth High Steward of Scotland.

House of Balliol
AD 1292 - 1296

John Balliol had been one of the main contenders for the vacant Scottish throne in 1290, along with Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale (grandfather to the better-known Robert the Bruce). His claim was not necessarily the superior one in terms of proximity to the royal family, as he was the great-great-great-grandson of David I on his mother's side, one generation further removed from Robert's own claim, but he was closer in terms of primogeniture. When it came to the great feudal court that was held at Berwick-upon-Tweed on 17 November 1292, he won the vote. He was supported by John Comyn, guardian of Scotland and his brother-in-law (among many others who also supported him). Robert was supported by James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland. John Balliol was therefore appointed king of Scotland by his overlord, Edward I of England.

Unfortunately for John, King Edward treated him very much as a vassal, diminishing his authority and overruling him constantly. The Scottish nobles soon tired of this, and of their compromised king, and began to take the governance of the country into their own hands, further undermining the king's position. When they appointed a council of twelve, effectively a new panel of guardians, Edward invaded, kick-starting the Wars of Succession.

1292 - 1296

John Balliol

Fifth lineal descendant of David I. Abdicated. Died 1315.

1295

On 5 July Scotland and France form an alliance, the origin of their 'Auld Alliance', against England. One of the former guardians of Scotland, Bishop William Fraser of St Andrews, is included in the party that visits France to secure the alliance.

1296 - 1297

Edward I of England invades following the formation of a council of twelve to manage the country outside the king's authority. The Scots are defeated at Dunbar in April 1296 and John Balliol formally abdicates on 10 July 1296. The 'Second Interregnum' follows, during which Edward I again rules Scotland directly. John is imprisoned in the Tower of London until allowed to leave for France in 1299. Rebellion flares up in Scotland, first with Robert Wishart and James Stewart, former guardians of Scotland (which ends in surrender to the English at Irvine), and then in the form of William Wallace. Initially he wins a great deal of support in some quarters and is victorious against an unwary English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297.

1297 - 1298

Sir William Wallace

Guardian of Scotland. Defeated, captured, and executed.

1298

William Wallace suffers defeat at the Battle of Falkirk in July 1298. A much later source, composed some decades after the event, states that John Comyn III arrives at the battlefield in support of Wallace, but with the intention of abandoning the Scottish army when Wallace most needs him (this act is depicted in the film, Braveheart, when Comyn leads his mounted force away at the height of the battle). The truth of it is highly uncertain. Thanks to the defeat, Wallace is forced to relinquish the guardianship of Scotland to Robert the Bruce and Sir John Comyn of Badenoch.

Defeat at the Battle of Falkirk effectively ended William Wallace's rebellion, although he did continue some guerrilla actions for time

1298 - 1300

Robert the Bruce

Joint guardian of Scotland. Earl of Carrick.

1298 - 1300

Sir John Comyn III of Badenoch

Nephew of Balliol. Joint guardian of Scotland. 'Red Comyn'.

1298 - 1306

In 1302, in his attempts to suppress William Wallace and claimant to the throne Robert the Bruce during the Scottish Wars of Independence, Edward I builds a fortress at Linlithgow. In 1305 William Wallace is captured and is subsequently hanged, drawn and quartered by the English at Smithfield, London.

1299 - 1301

William Lamberton

Guardian of Scotland. Bishop of St Andrews. Died 1328.

1300 - 1301

Sir Ingram de Umfraville

Guardian of Scotland.

1301

William Lamberton returns to France to exercise his influence on the sympathetic King Philip IV, while the changeable (some would say pragmatic) Sir Ingram resigns. This leaves John de Soules as sole guardian, possible appointed by John Balliol himself, as the figurehead of the general movement to restore him to the throne (at least, the movement exists in name and general sentiment, but the convoluted nature of Scottish politics means that the Bruce faction is also vying for control, even while potentially paying lip service to the Balliol cause). When de Soules leaves for France on a diplomatic mission, Sir John Comyn takes over, even though de Soules nominally retains his position as guardian.

1301 - 1304

John de Soules

Guardian of Scotland. Died 1310.

1302 - 1304

Sir John Comyn III of Badenoch

Guardian of Scotland for second time. Killed by Robert in 1306.

1303 - 1304

Sir John Comyn and Sir Simon Fraser defeat the English at the Battle of Roslin, near Edinburgh, in February 1303. The victory is a hard-fought one, but it is merely another stage in the power politics of Scotland. Comyn is soon sidelined and reduced to a bit-part figure, despite his virtually untouched stronghold north of the Firth of Forth and his ability to raise large numbers of fighting men. With an invasion by Edward I of England threatened, one which promises to engulf Forth, Comyn is forced to enter peace negotiations in 1304, part of which include a promise to hand over William Wallace, should he come into Comyn's hands (although the validity of the promise is not put to the test).

1305

King Edward I of England appoints his nephew, John of Brittany, as guardian of Scotland. The second son of Duke John II of Brittany, John wholeheartedly shares Edward's aims when it comes to expanding the size and influence of the English kingdom. He is trusted by the English court as a diplomat and negotiator, and his term of office as guardian witnesses no major upsets.

1305 - 1307

John of Brittany

Guardian of Scotland. Earl of Richmond. Died 1334.

1306

With John Comyn dead, Robert the Bruce is now the only serious contender for the throne. Despite being excommunicated for murdering Comyn, Robert is still crowned in 1306 as the independent king of Scotland.

House of Bruce
AD 1306 - 1371

The period between the enforced abdication of John Balliol in 1296 and the accession of Robert Bruce in 1306 was one of domination by King Edward I of England, the 'Hammer of the Scots'. Several Scottish rebellions flared up, most notably those by William Wallace and Andrew Moray in 1297 under the claim that John Balliol had been unfairly forced from the throne and remained the rightful king. Balliol, however, had accepted exile in France, in the custody of Pope Boniface VIII. He was released from this in 1301, but only to move to his ancestral estates in Picardy, where he remained for the rest of his life. The Scots received no support or encouragement from him after 1302.

Robert the Bruce, son of the earl of Carrick, emerged as the favourite to lead the Scots out of English control. He sided with Edward I during the abdication of John Balliol, but switched sides during the revolt of William Wallace. In 1298 he succeeded Wallace as guardian of Scotland, alongside his co-guardian, Sir John Comyn of Badenoch. As a relative of John Balliol, John Comyn was a potential rival for the throne, so Robert killed him during one of many arguments, this time in a church in Dumfries a few weeks before Robert was due to be crowned. This act earned him excommunication from Pope Clement V and the status of outlaw from Edward I, but it did not prevent him from becoming the independent king of Scotland in 1306.

(Additional information from External Link: The British Monarchy.)

1306 - 1329

Robert I Bruce

Descendant of David I. Former guardian of Scotland.

1306

At the very start of his reign, Robert is defeated by the English at the Battle of Methven. He takes refuge at Strathfillan, where he is surprised by the English in August. His wife, daughter and sisters are imprisoned, and three of his brothers are executed by the English. Robert flees westwards to the Antrim coast, at his lowest point (which is where the sixteenth century story of Robert drawing inspiration from a persistent spider mending its web in a cave originates). The death of his implacable enemy, Edward I, in 1307 helps him recover his position. Robert begins to wage a very effective guerrilla war against the English, establishing control north of the Firth of Forth.

1314

The defeat of Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn on 24 June by Robert sees the start of a period in which the certainty of Scottish independence from England become more and more firmly established. The drawing-up of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320 involves Pope John XXII in negotiations after the Scottish earls, barons and other nobles write to him declaring that they recognise Robert as their true king.

The Battle of Bannockburn by William Hole, part of a mural in three sections, from the Scottish National Portrait Museum in Edinburgh showing Robert the Bruce in the foreground

1316 - 1318

Robert's brother, Edward, is inaugurated as high king of Ireland, increasing the pressure on the English. The Bruce family have direct maternal links to Brian Boru of the early eleventh century and are therefore valid candidates to rule Ireland as well. However, Edward's death in battle in 1318, ends Scottish involvement there. In Scotland itself, although Robert captures Berwick in the same year, Edward II refuses to relinquish his claim as overlord of the country.

1324 - 1326

The Pope recognises Robert as king of an independent Scotland. Two years later, the Franco-Scottish alliance is renewed in the Treaty of Corbeil, by which the Scots are obliged to make war on England should hostilities break out between England and France.

1327 - 1328

Edward II of England is deposed, and the following year the English sign the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, in which England renounces its claim to Scotland. The following year, Robert the Bruce dies and his young son succeeds him, with the support of a guardian or regent of Scotland. The post of guardian is fraught with danger, however, and none of the incumbents during David's infancy last very long.

1329 - 1371

David II

Son. Aged 4 at accession. Died childless.

1329 - 1332

Sir Thomas Randolph

Guardian of Scotland. First Earl of Moray. Died.

1332

Donald

Second guardian. Earl of Mar. Killed at Dupplin Moor.

1332 - 1333

Sir Andrew Murray of Bothwell

Third guardian. Brother-in-law of Robert the Bruce. Captured.

1332 - 1342

The English attempt to take advantage of the king's young age by promoting Edward Balliol as a rival claimant to the Scottish throne. Balliol is crowned king of Scotland by the English and his Scots supporters. After less than a year in Scotland, he is forced to flee to England, but he returns in 1333 with an invasion force.

1332

Edward Balliol

Son of John Balliol. Rival claimant in Aug-Dec 1332.

1333

Archibald Douglas 'the Tyneman'

Fourth guardian. Killed at Halidon Hill.

1333

David is defeated at the Battle of Halidon Hill (near Berwick) and flees to France. His nephew, Robert the Steward, takes over governance of the country as 'Guardian of Scotland' until the king deems it safe to return in 1341. Edward Balliol is 'restored' as king following the English victory, and immediately cedes Lothian to the English king.

1333 - 1341

Robert the Steward

Fifth guardian. Governed in the king's name during exile.

1333 - 1334

Edward Balliol

Rival claimant, restored by the English.

1335 - 1336

Edward Balliol

Rival claimant, restored again by the English. Returned in 1346.

1336

Edward Balliol is deposed yet again by those loyal to King David, and any realistic hope he might have of ruling Scotland is ended with the return of the true king in 1341.

1346

King Edward III of England crushes the army of Philip of France at the Battle of Crecy. The seventeen year-old King David decides to invade England in support of his French allies, but he is defeated and captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham, on 17 October. He is imprisoned by the English for eleven long years, during which time Robert the Steward governs Scotland in his name. Edward Balliol takes the opportunity of raising an insurrection in Galloway, but although he manages to take his forces into the heart of Scotland, he wins no support there and the attempt fades to nothing.

1346 - 1357

Robert the Steward

Governed again in the king's name during his imprisonment.

1357

On 3 October 1357, the Scots agree to the terms of the Treaty of Berwick, paying an enormous ransom of 100,000 merks for the release of King David. He returns to Scotland but heavy taxation is needed to provide funds for the ransom, which is to be paid in instalments. David further alienates his subjects by using the money for his own purposes.

1371

Having attempted to remove his nephew from the line of succession in favour of King Edward III of England, David dies childless. Despite his attempts, Robert the Steward is still crowned as his successor, initiating the Stewart dynasty.

House of Stewart
AD 1371 - 1707

Robert II was the son of Walter Stewart and Marjorie, daughter of Robert the Bruce. Born on 2 March 1316 at Paisley, he gained the Scottish throne on 22 February 1371, at the age of fifty-four. His accession essentially did the same service for Scotland as the Tudor accession did for England, ending a series of debilitating and destructive wars for the throne. The new Stewart dynasty bore the name of Robert's ancestor, a former high steward of the palace under David I in the twelfth century. The title of steward became the family name of Stewart (a common medieval occurrence and the source of a great many modern surnames). On his mother's side, Robert was directly descended from King David via Robert the Bruce, giving his claim to the throne its legitimacy.

Robert himself served twice as guardian of Scotland following the defeat and exile of King David II in 1333, and upon the king's death Robert was crowned his successor. His accession was far from universally welcomed, however. Many of the nobles saw him as a step down from the usual kingly candidate, given his family origins as little more than servants. Robert was not a strong king, which is what the country direly needed, so before long his son took over much of the day-to-day governance of the country in an attempt to restore law and order. Few of the Stewart kings lived long and happy lives, though. Many were victims of the internecine quarrelling of the Scots themselves.

(Additional information from External Link: Royal Family History.)

1371 - 1390

Robert II

Former guardian. Grandson of Robert I of the House of Bruce.

1388

A truce with England in 1384 is short-lived, mostly thanks to Robert refusing to recognise it, and the border wars continue. Now the Scots under James Douglas win a victory at the Battle of Otterburn, near Newcastle, defeating Henry Percy 'Hotspur' of the newly-created duchy of Northumberland.

1390

Robert II dies peacefully at Dundonald Castle in Ayrshire at the impressive age of seventy-four. He is buried at Scone Abbey and succeeded by his son, John, who takes the reignal name Robert III to avoid the potential bad omen of a name that was used by the hated John Balliol.

Dundonald Castle in Ayrshire was built by Robert in 1371, and he died there nineteen years later, one of the few Stewart kings to die peacefully

1390 - 1406

Robert III

Son.

1402

Beset by internal problems, from the internecine quarrelling of the Highlanders to the powerful lords of the isles, Robert now faces an invasion of the lowlands by Henry IV of England. The Scots are defeated twice, at the battles of Nesbit Moor and Humbleton Hill (or Homildon Hill), and Henry seizes Edinburgh, albeit briefly.

1406

Robert suffers a riding accident which disables him, and his eldest son David is killed, probably by Robert's brother, the duke of Albany. Robert sends his ten year-old second son, James, to safety in France but his vessel is captured near Flamborough Head and he is taken prisoner by the English. The sad news may hasten Robert's death in the same year.

1406 - 1424

With Robert dead, James is now the rightful king of Scotland, but he remains imprisoned in the Tower of London by the English until 1424. In his absence, his uncle, Robert, duke of Albany, governs Scotland, making little effort to secure the king's release in the hope that one of his own sons can assume the throne. A ransom of 60,000 marks is eventually promised for the release of James so that he can return home to be crowned at Scone. Part of this amount is defaulted by James himself. (Unusually for these pages, the regent is shown before the monarch, as Robert ruled without even the pretence of being able, or wanting, to consult the king.)

1406 - 1424

Robert of Albany

Brother and regent in the absence of James I.

1406 - 1437

James I

Son of Robert III. Murdered.

1411

Highland and Lowland Scots clash at 'Red Harlaw' in Aberdeenshire on 24 July 1411, one of the bloodiest battles in Scottish history. Known more officially as the Battle of Harlaw, it is one of a series of clashes between the clans of the north-east and those of the western coast as they vie for supremacy.

1437

Having been spending large amounts on Linlithgow Palace and luxuries for the court, James has stoked discontent amongst the nobles. Supporters of Walter, lord of Atholl, the son of Robert III's second marriage (and therefore James' half-brother), assassinate the king in the Friars Preachers Dominican Monastery at Perth. He is aged just forty-two.

1437 - 1460

James II

Son. Aged 6 at accession.

1437 - 1439

Joan Beaufort

Mother and regent. Removed from her office.

1437 - 1439

Archibald Douglas

Earl of Douglas and regent. Died of fever.

1439

With the death of Archibald Douglas, Scotland is suffering a lack of senior members of the nobility so three younger regents are appointed in Sir William Crichton, Sir Alexander Livingstone, and James Douglas. Livingstone immediately takes advantage of his new position to have Queen Joan and her new husband placed under house arrest. They are only released the following year once they agree to hand over all power and control to Livingstone.

1439 - 1449?

Sir William Crichton

Lord chancellor and regent.

1439 - 1449?

Sir Alexander Livingstone

Regent.

1439 - 1443

James Douglas

Earl of Avondale and regent.

1440

The power-sharing triumvirate of Sir William Crichton, Sir Alexander Livingstone, and James Douglas conspire to break the power of the earls of Douglas. They summon the current earl, William Douglas, and his brother David to Edinburgh Castle. The young men face trumped-up charges, and are summarily beheaded. The event is known as the 'Black Dinner', and the Douglas title and lands pass to James Douglas who is consequently seen as the lead perpetrator of the crime.

1446

Construction begins on Rosslyn Chapel. It is intended to be one of over thirty-seven collegiate churches to be built during the reigns of the first four King James, between 1406-1513.

1449 - 1452

James comes of age in 1449, and the Douglases use the event as an excuse to kick the Livingstone faction out of power, with the king's support. Over the next three years, James attempts to curb the power of the Douglases, culminating in the murder of Lord Douglas at Stirling Castle on 22 February 1452. He finds himself in a situation of intermittent civil war as he struggles for authority in Scotland.

1460

The twenty-nine year-old James besieges Roxburgh which is in the hands of the English. James has a large army and iron canon that have been newly imported from Flanders. But when he is standing nearby one of those canon on 3 August, it kills him when it explodes instead of sending a salute to his arriving queen.

A romantic view of Roxburgh Castle, once one of Scotland's four great cities, but seen in this 1920 print in the sixteenth or seventeenth century, by which time the former city had virtually disappeared

1460 - 1488

James III

Son of James II. Aged 8 at accession. Murdered.

1460 - 1463

Mary of Guelders

Mother and regent. Died.

1463

The regency of Mary of Guelders, mother of James III, is replaced by a dual regency under James Kennedy, bishop of St Andrews, and Gilbert, First Lord Kennedy.

1463 - 1465

James Kennedy

Bishop of St Andrews and regent.

1463 - 1465

Gilbert

Lord Kennedy. Regent.

1466

After conspiring with his brother, Sir Alexander Boyd, the unscrupulous Robert Boyd, First Lord Boyd, manoeuvres himself into the position of regent for the young king. An act of parliament makes him the sole 'Governor of the Realm'. He quickly secures the king's sister, Mary, in marriage for Thomas, his eldest son. James regards the match as an insult, but for the moment is not in a position to oppose it.

1466 - 1469

Robert

Lord Boyd. Regent. Died 1482.

1472

The weak and unpopular James marries Margaret of Denmark, a union that is negotiated by the even more unpopular and self-aggrandising Boyd faction at court. Her dowry includes Orkney and Shetland, so these are handed over by the Danish crown to Scotland, while the annual fee for the Western Isles is also ended. But the power of the Boyds themselves has already been broken by the king.

1482

One of Scotland's four great cities, Berwick, is finally ceded to the occupying English. James is forced to withdrawn his trade from the city, as the tax will no longer go to him. This is probably the tipping point in the fortunes of one of the other great cities, Roxburgh. Although it had risen to greatness in the days of David I, it suffered badly during the wars of Edward I, and the main reason for its existence has now been lost. Roxburgh gradually becomes a ghost town that crumbles away and is lost to history by the early 1600s, until archaeologists pinpoint its main features in 2004.

1488

Rebellious nobles, disaffected by James' bisexuality and his weak rule, call for his son to replace him on the throne. James' supporters are defeated at the Battle of Sauchieburn on 11 June (near Bannockburn) and James is deposed. He flees to Milltown where he is stabbed to death by a man dressed as a priest.

1488 - 1513

James IV

Son. Aged 15. Adopted the thistle as the Stewart emblem.

1493

James takes the title 'Lord of the Isles', a minor kingship in its own right, during the anarchic period in the Highlands following the death of the last MacDonald lord of the Isles.

1502 - 1503

Scotland and England agree a 'perpetual peace' when James and Henry VII come to terms. The following year, James marries Henry's daughter, Margaret Tudor, laying the basis for eventual union between the two crowns.

1513

James takes full advantage of the fact that Henry VIII is campaigning in France and his wife, Isabella, is governing England in his name. Encouraged by the French, James invades England, but Isabella sends an army north. The two forces meet at Flodden and the Scots are annihilated, with around 10,000 casualties, including James himself. This makes him the last British monarch to die in battle.

1513 - 1542

James V

Son. Aged 1 at accession.

1513 - 1514

Margaret Tudor

Mother and regent. Died 1541

1514 - 1524

John Stewart

Duke of Albany. Regent and second in line to the throne.

1528

With Protestantism on the rise across Europe and England, the staunchly Catholic James remains unbending when it comes to dealing with heretics. One of the leading Protestant reformers is Patrick Hamilton, and he is burned at the stake in St Andrews.

1541 - 1542

The death of his mother, Margaret Tudor, removes James' adherence to the 'perpetual peace' with England, and when invited he fails to meet Henry VIII at York. Instead, he mobilises his army and prepares to invade England but his army is defeated at Solway Moss on the Scottish borders in 1542. The news of the defeat is a powerful blow, and he dies just six days after his daughter is born.

1542 - 1567

Mary (Queen of Scots)

Dau of James V by 2nd wife. Executed: Fotheringay (1587).

1547

In the last battle between English and Scottish royal armies, the Scots are routed at Pinkie, Edinburgh, on 10 September. The battle is triggered by the uncle and Royal Protector of Edward VI, Edward Seymour, as he attempts to impose Anglican reform north of the border and force the infant Mary Queen of Scots to marry Edward. Mary is smuggled to France.

1558

Still in France, and now perhaps as much a Frenchwomen as she is a Scot after living there for the greater part of her life, Mary marries Francis, son of King Henry II, in Paris on 24 April 1558. She also adopts the French spelling of Stuart for her surname. Francis becomes king the following year, albeit briefly.

1559 - 1560

Scone Abbey is sacked and burned by an angry mob at the height of the Reformation. The following year, the parliament legislates for the Protestant reform of the church in Scotland. Latin mass is forbidden. In addition, the Treaty of Edinburgh between France and England recognises the sovereignty of Mary and her husband.

The gates of Scone Abbey survived in this form until 2010, when a white van driver rammed through them, destroying all of the bridging stonework

1561 - 1565

The recently-widowed Mary returns to Scotland from France, landing at Leith. Although she is still a Catholic, the country is Protestant following the reforms of John Knox. Her initial governance of a difficult country is successful, but her French-styled extravagance at court is not. In 1565, under pressure from the nobility to marry, she agrees to an ill-judged alliance with her second cousin, Henry, Lord Darnley. He is manipulated by her enemies into leading a bunch of conspirators to murder of her secretary, David Rizzio, in front of her eyes.

1566 - 1567

Mary gives birth to Darnley's son, James Stuart, in June 1566, but the turbulent marriage is generally a disaster. When Darnley is found murdered at Kirk o'Field near Edinburgh on 10 February 1567, Mary is largely believed to be complicit in the crime. In the same year she remarries, to the earl of Bothwell, possibly Darnley's murderer. The Scottish lords quickly imprison her in Loch Leven Castle where she abdicates in favour of her son. The earl of Mar is appointed regent (not that Mary has any choice in the matter).

1567 - 1625

James VI

Son of Mary by her second husband.

1567 - 1570

James Stewart

Earl of Moray & Mar. Regent. Assassinated.

1568

Mary escapes from Loch Leven Castle but her supporters (the 'Queen's party') are defeated near Glasgow, at the Battle of Langside. She flees to England where she believes she will be protected and supported by her cousin, Elizabeth Tudor. Instead she is imprisoned at Fotheringay Castle, a political embarrassment to both kingdoms.

1570 - 1571

Mathew Stewart

Earl of Lennox. Regent. Shot dead in skirmish with Queen's party.

1571 - 1572

John Erskine

Earl of Mar. Regent. Died of natural causes.

1572 - 1578

James Douglas

Earl of Morton. Regent. Resigned due to opposition from nobility.

1603

With the death of Elizabeth Tudor, her cousin, James VI of Scotland, is now also king of England. He is one of Elizabeth's closest living relatives, thanks to the marriage between James IV and Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII of England. The Scottish royal court moves to London, and the two kingdoms are ruled from there. Despite this, Scotland continues to have its own judicial system, along with similarly independent educational and religious institutions.

1603 - 1625

James VI (I)

King James VI of Scotland and I of England.

1625

Upon the death of James VI, he is succeeded by his son, Charles I of England and Scotland. Reignal numbering for all subsequent kings is shown for Scotland first, followed by England in parenthesis.

1625 - 1649

Charles I

Son. King of Scotland & England. Executed by Parliament.

1640

The Scots defeat Charles I Stuart in the Second Bishops' War, and the king is forced to recall Parliament, which becomes known as the Long Parliament.

1642 - 1651

Charles Stuart raises his standard, declaring war on a Parliament which is determined to force a confrontation. In 1645 the Royalists are routed at the Battle of Philiphaugh, defeating Charles' cause in Scotland.

1649 - 1653

Oliver Cromwell supports the execution of the king in January 1649, and leads an army to crush the Irish in August of the same year. In 1650, he also crushes Scotland with his highly efficient New Model Army. In 1653, he dissolves Parliament and by the end of the year has assumed the role of Lord Protector of the Commonwealth.

1649 - 1658

Oliver Cromwell

Effectively in control of Parliament (1649). First Lord Protector.

1658 - 1659

Richard Cromwell

Second Lord Protector. Abdicated in favour of Charles II.

1659 - 1660

Richard Cromwell, entirely unsuited to his role as lord protector, abdicates in 1659. Negotiations with Charles II are opened, and the restored king returns to Britain. The body of Oliver Cromwell, buried in Westminster Abbey, is exhumed by Charles' supporters and hanged on the scaffold at Tyburn (near modern day Marble Arch in London). It is later cut down and beheaded, with the body probably being dumped in a nearby pit. The embalmed head is eventually removed from a spike and passes from owner to owner until it is reburied at Sidney Sussex College in Cambridge in 1960. Charles II returns from the Netherlands on his birthday to reclaim the throne, along with his Portuguese wife, Catherine of Braganza. The English Parliament proclaims him king of England on 8 May 1660.

1660 - 1685

Charles II

Son of Charles I. Restored king of Scotland & England.

1685 - 1688

James VII (II)

Brother. King James VII of Scotland & II of England.

1688

Feeling against the blatantly anti-Protestant James II of England and VII of Scotland flares up when his second wife, Mary of Modena, gives birth to a Catholic heir (commonly believed to be a changeling). His brother-in-law, William of Orange, lands in Britain with a Dutch army. The disaffected British army goes over to him, and a bloodless takeover is effected with the support of the British people, named the Glorious Revolution. James flees London for France on 11 December, and by this act is deemed to have abdicated. He and his supporters continue to hold a claim to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland for decades to come, but most of the significant Scottish nobles support William. The Jacobite pretenders to the throne are shown below with a shaded background.

1688 - 1701

James VII (II)

The deposed James II of Scotland & England.

1698

Scottish settlers make landfall in Panama, establishing the ill-fated 'Darien Venture' colony. The project is an ambitious one, and is backed financially by almost every Scottish landowner, many of whom are bankrupted when it fails. This disaster, along with the threat of an invasion by the English under William of Orange, persuades Scotland's nobles to support a formal union with England.

The Darien Venture colony was based around a Panamanian isthmus which was heavily forested both then and now

1701 - 1707

James VIII (III) Francis 'Old Pretender'

Son of James II. Prince of Wales. Involved in 1716 rebellion.

1707

The Union of the crowns of England and Scotland is enacted, ending the separate rule of a nominally independent Scotland by the Stuarts and instead merging the two crowns into one. The claim to the throne by the Jacobite Stuarts continues to be upheld, and attempts are made to pursue that claim, starting in 1708.

Early Modern Scotland
AD 1707 - 1837

The union of the crowns of England and Scotland was enacted in 1707, establishing in fact a union that had existed in name since 1603 (albeit with the countries having their own parliaments and laws). The idea had been recommended by William III, but it took a while to get it through, and it was only during the reign of Queen Anne that it was finally ratified. Primarily, perhaps, it was seen as a method of preventing the possibility of Scotland going its own way, especially as within a few years the Scottish Parliament would refuse to endorse the Hanoverian succession.

The joint kingdoms were governed from a single Parliament at Westminster in London. In the year following union, in 1708, an attempted invasion of Scotland by James Francis Stuart at the Firth of Forth was defeated at sea. The Jacobite pretenders to the English and Scottish thrones are shown with a shaded background.

1707 - 1766

James VIII (III) Francis 'Old Pretender'

Son of James II. Prince of Wales. Involved in 1716 rebellion.

1715 - 1716

Having lost a vote to repeal the union with England in 1713, the Jacobites rise in the First Jacobite Rebellion in support of James Edward Francis Stuart, the 'Old Pretender'. Seeking to overthrow George I, they want to replace him with James III. A force of about 10,000 is assembled, mostly made up of Highlanders, and this marches southwards after some delays which allow the Crown time to assemble a response. Reinforcements of 2,000 men are defeated at the Battle of Preston on 15 November 1715, and the main force fights the duke of Argyll's smaller force of 3,500 at Sheriffmuir on 13 November. The outcome is indecisive, but this, along with the defeat at Preston, is enough to herald the rebellion's collapse.

1745 - 1746

Bonnie Prince Charlie lands at Eriskay in the Hebrides, Scotland, to lay claim to the British throne. Fighting in his still-living father's name, he raises his standard at Glenfinnan, Scotland on 19 August, igniting the Second Jacobite Rebellion. On 21 September, his Jacobite forces defeat English forces at the Battle of Prestonpans. The following year, in 1746, in the last battle fought on British soil, the Jacobites are routed by the duke of Cumberland at Culloden. The Jacobite cause effective dies, but Charles Edward's claim is passed on, first through his brother, Henry, in 1788, and then the Savoyard kings of Sardinia from 1807.

The Battle of Culloden saw the destruction of the clans in Scotland at the hands of Britain's modern army

1752

Britain switches from the outdated Julian calendar to the Gregorian one, 'losing' twelve days in the process and moving the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January (except for the tax office, which refuses to budge, up to and including the present day).

1763

The first Tory and first Scottish-born MP to hold office in Parliament, the earl of Bute's eleven month term of office ends the Seven Years' War against France. Unpopular because he is a Scot at a time when the Jacobite Rebellion is still fresh in people's minds, he resigns after a spate of verbal and physical attacks upon his person.

1766 - 1788

Charles III Edward 'Young Pretender'

Son of James Francis Stuart. Also 'Bonnie Prince Charlie'.

1788 - 1807

Henry I (IX) Benedict Cardinal Stuart

Son of James Francis Stuart. Last Jacobite claimant to throne.

1807

With the death of the unmarried Henry, the Jacobite claim for the English and Scottish thrones (or at least the Scottish throne) effectively dies. Although his successors have a technical claim, none of them attempt to enforce it. Next in line to take up the claim is the Savoyard King Charles Emanuel IV of Sardinia, a descendant of Charles I of England and Scotland through Henrietta Anne, the latter king's youngest daughter. Henrietta Anne's daughter, Anne Marie of Orleans, had married King Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia.

1807 - 1819

Charles IV

Charles Emanuel IV of Savoy & Sardinia (1796-1802).

1819 - 1824

Victor

Victor Emanuel I of Savoy & Sardinia (1802-1821).

1824 - 1840

Mary III & II

Daughter of Victor Emanuel. Maria Beatrice of Savoy.

Modern Scotland (Alba)
AD 1837 - Present Day

Formed as a union of the kingdoms of Pictland and Dal Riada, modern Scotland forms the northern third or so of Great Britain, covering territory between Berwick-upon-Tweed on the east coast and Gretna on the west coast, and heading northwards into the Highlands. It also includes over seven hundred islands, along with the Northern Isles, the Western Isles, and the Hebrides. Its capital, and the base for Scotland's modern devolved regional parliament, is Edinburgh, a city founded by the Celtic Britons of the Votadini tribe almost two thousand years ago.

The advent of the House of Saxe-Coburg, created as a result of the marriage between Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, could be said to be a starting point for modern Scotland. The period not only ended the reign of the Hanoverians, which had been somewhat contentious in the eyes of the Highlanders, but triggered a wave of innovation and technological progress that created modern Britain as a whole during the Industrial Revolution.

Despite no longer laying a claim to the Scottish throne, the Jacobite successors of the dispossessed 'Bonny' Prince Charlie still have a technical claim made for them by their supporters, and as such these claimants are shown with a shaded background. Reignal numbering for all claimants is shown for Scotland first, followed by England in parenthesis, with numbering continuing from the Stuart period and ignoring any later legitimate monarchs of England and Scotland.

1840

With the death of Maria Beatrice of Savoy, the title of Jacobite Stuart claimant to the English throne passes first to her son, Francis, duke of Modena, and then to her daughter, Maria Theresia of Austria-Este, queen consort of Ludwig III of Bavaria. Thereafter it remains with the Bavarian Wittelsbachs.

1840 - 1875

Francis

Son of Maria Beatrice of Savoy. Duke Francis V of Modena.

1875 - 1919

Mary IV & III

Maria Theresia of Austria-Este, queen consort of Bavaria.

1914 - 1918

Having jointly guaranteed in 1839 to support the neutrality of Belgium, when the country is invaded by Germany, Britain and all its territories and colonies (including Canada), France and Russia are forced to declare war at midnight on 4 August. The First World War lasts for just over four years, until 1918. A ceasefire is agreed with the remnants of the Austro-Hungarian empire by British, French, and Italian forces on 3 November. Germany, now alone, sees its emperor abdicate on 9 November, and an armistice is agreed to come into effect on the eleventh hour of 11 November, signalling the end of the war, although many less widespread wars continue as a result of the upheavals caused by it.

Edinburgh, the capital city of Scotland, is still overlooked by the Castle Rock upon which sits Edinburgh Castle, a fortress which has existed in this form since the sixteenth century

1922

Despite expectations of prosperity in Scotland's industrial heartland, mostly based around the shipbuilding industry, depression hits the economy. Scotland suffers years of stagnation and high unemployment which does not start to ease until the mid-thirties.

1919 - 1955

Robert I & IV

Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria.

1939

The Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September is the trigger for the Second World War. With both France and Britain, under Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, pledged to support Poland, both countries have no option but to declare war on 3 September.

1945

Following the end of the war, Scotland suffers badly again from a poor economic condition. Competition from other countries for its traditional manufacturing services is now intense and decline sets in, only to be eased and eventually reversed in the 1990s.

1953

Some elements of Scottish society takes umbrage at one specific detail of the impending coronation of Elizabeth Windsor. As there has never been an Elizabeth I of Scotland, there could hardly be an Elizabeth II now. The rector of the University of Glasgow, John MacCormick launches a legal challenge against Elizabeth's right to use 'the second' in Scotland, but this fails. It is Prime Minister Winston Churchill who comes up with a compromise. Any future monarch of England and Scotland should use the highest numbering applicable in both countries combined, so that a King James would be James VIII (following on from Scotland's James VII) and a Henry would be Henry IX (following on from England's Henry VIII).

1955

Duke Albert (Albrecht) becomes the head of the House of Wittelsbach in Bavaria and is also now the senior member of the House of Stuart. During his lifetime he is considered by modern Jacobites to be the rightful ruler of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Albert himself does not make any claim to the English throne.

1955 - 1996

Albert

Crown Prince Albrecht of Bavaria.

1964

The UK Continental Shelf Act comes into force in May 1964. North Sea oil fields are quickly discovered and exploited, and Aberdeen forms the mainland base for distribution, gaining it the nickname 'Oil Capital of Europe'.

1996 - Present

Francis

Crown Prince Franz of Bavaria.

1999

Devolution gives Scotland back a parliament of its own to handle its internal affairs. The Scottish Parliament operates from Holyrood in Edinburgh in a purpose-built construction which takes four years to complete, opening in 2004.