African Kingdoms

Kongo Kingdom (Africa)
c.AD 1400 - 1914

Central African States All African States All Modern States Early Africa (Intro) Egypt

The pre-history of Africa contains a far longer period of human habitation than any other area on Earth, thanks to it being the cradle of humankind's evolution. Much of this pre-history involves a great deal of uncertainty in which small windows of opportunity to view events can be gained through archaeology. Even more recent prehistory is shrouded in uncertainty, requiring analysis and archaeology to help define it.

Central Africa was poorly defined as a region until the creation of colonial-era territories in the eighteenth century. Before that at least parts of it appear to have been virgin territory, with no recent occupation. A collection of sultanates emerged across the area which today is partially covered by Central African Republic (or CAR) and to its north, but prior to that there was a period of almost two centuries of gradual, increasing movement into the area.

To the south of that region, situated in the lower Congo and today's northern Angola, the Kongo kingdom was founded in the late fourteenth century. Its original home lies somewhere in the region along the lower stretches of the River Congo. According to a study of Kongo's traditions by John Thornton, that origin was in the small state of Mpemba Kasi, which is located just to the south of today's Matadi in Democratic Republic of Congo.

This was one of a selection of small Iron Age communities which lay just to the north of the Malebo pool along the River Congo (formerly known as the Zaire). This strategic location provided fertile soil, iron, and copper ore, a rich source of fish, and a river which was navigable upstream for thousands of kilometres.

A dynasty of rulers from this small state built up their rule along the Kwilu valley, and were buried in Nsi Kwilu, which was apparently their early capital. At some point around 1375 the ruler of Mpemba Kasi made an alliance with the ruler of the neighbouring Mbata kingdom, one which was sealed by marriage, and the Kongo kingdom was born out of this alliance.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Elite Women in the Kingdom of Kongo: Historical Perspectives on Women's Political Power, John Thornton (Journal of African History 47, 2006), from Mbanza Kongo/Sao Salvador: Kongo's Holy City, John Thornton, from Kongo's Incorporation into Angola: A Perspective from Kongo, John Thornton, from Urban Africa; Histories in the Making (Africa's Urban Past), David M Anderson & Richard Rathbone (Eds), from Africana: The Encyclopaedia of the African and African American Experience, Anthony Appiah & Henry Louis Gates (Oxford University Press, 2005), from The New Atlas of African History, G S P Freeman-Grenville (Rex Collins, London, 1991), from Times Atlas of World History (Maplewood, 1979), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and 500 years of spirit objects (Art History Project), and Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1350–1550, John Thornton (International Journal of African Historical Studies No 34, and available as a PDF via JSTOR).)

fl c.1375

Ruler of Mpemba Kasi. Agreed union.

fl c.1375

Ruler of the Mbata kingdom. Supplied the bride.

c.1375 - 1400

Nsaku Lau is recorded by oral tradition as the last independent ruler of the Mbata clan state. Around this time he enters into an alliance with the ruler of the neighbouring Mpemba Kasi state to create a bigger, combined state.

The Kongo kingdom had its early tribal origins in the lower stretches of the River Congo, but today the river forms much of the border between Republic of the Congo to its west and Democratic Republic of the Congo to its east

The alliance is sealed by Nimi a Nzima of Mpemba Kasi marrying Lukeni Lua Sange, the daughter of Nsaku Lau. Only very approximate dates are known for either ruler, based on oral tradition. Their alliance guarantees that each ensures the succession of their joint lines.

The son and heir of this arrangement, Lukeni lua Nimi, becomes the founder of the Kongo kingdom when, around 1400, he conquers the state of the Mwene Kabunga (or Mwene Mpangala), which lies upon a mountain to his south.

c.1400 - ?

Founded Kongo kingdom. Son of Nimi a Nzima.

c.1400

Under Lukeni lua Nimi, Mbata's regionally-powerful army supplies the predominance of his early armed forces, and the former state retains a privileged position within the new state, almost in the form of a kingdom within the kingdom. It even retains a line of kings which continues to this day.

The captured Mwene Kabunga state has a chief settlement and significant trading hub at Mbanza Kongo (later rechristened as São Salvador, now in north-western Angola), and this now becomes the chief settlement of the Kongo kingdom.

The ruins of Mbanza Kongo, prior to the adoption of São Salvador, still survive in modern Angola

Lukeni lua Nimi probably dies comparatively young, as his son is still an infant and is too young to succeed him. Instead a cousin is his successor, with that taking place at a point between about 1402-1427.

fl c.1430s?

Nephew. Chosen because the son was too young.

fl c.1440s?

Cousin.

fl c.1450

Son of Lukeni.

1470 - 1509

Son. Christened in 1491.

1482 - 1483

Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão visits the kingdom, impressing the manikongo with Portuguese culture. When he leaves he brings with him a few daring Kongo noblemen, taking them to Portugal. The nobles return two years later, indoctrinated with Spanish Catholicism.

1491

Portuguese missionaries, soldiers, and artisans are welcomed at Mbanza. The missionaries soon gain converts, including the manikongo himself, Nzinga Nkuwu (who takes the name João I), and the soldiers help him to defeat an internal rebellion.

The arrival of Portuguese troops and a colonial formation called Portuguese Angola meant decades of interference in Kongo's politics

1509- 1543

Raised as a Christian. Attempted to convert his subjects.

1543

The Portuguese are primarily interested in increasing their private fortunes (especially through capturing Africans and selling them into slavery), despite the attempts of King Manuel I of Portugal to channel the efforts of his subjects into constructive projects.

Following the death of Kongo's Alfonso I, they play a major part in weakening the kingdom and reducing the hold of the capital (renamed São Salvador) over the provinces. Kongo declines rapidly and suffers major civil wars while the slave trade runs rampant.

1543 - 1545

Son. Deposed by Diogo I.

1545

Son. Died in the same year as acceding.

1545 - 1561

Cousin. Swiftly but peacefully consolidated power.

1556

Despite having invested time and energy into controlling Kongo, the Portuguese have already shifted their interest southwards to the previously-subject kingdom of Ndongo. Now Ndongo is aided to defeat Kongo.

This sixteenth century cathedral (built in 1549) is claimed by many Angolans to be the oldest church in sub-Saharan Africa

1561

Briefly ruled. Murdered or overthrown?

1561 - 1566

Usurper. Killed fighting the Yaka in the east.

1566 - 1568

Killed while fighting a Lunda war in the east.

1568

The death of Henrique I on campaign signals the end of the direct Lukeni line of Kongo succession from Lukeni lua Nimi. A stepson is selected as the next king, and his accession is contested. Nevertheless, his reign is the first by the kingdom's Kwilu tribe.

House of Kwilu (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1568 - 1622

The Kongo kingdom in Africa was formed between about 1375-1400 when the clan states of Mpemba Kasi and Mbata sealed an alliance through marriage, and the first fruits of that alliance began to expand the state's borders by about 1400. Situated largely in today's Angola, Kongo started out as a set of holdings along the lower stretches of the River Congo and quickly expanded along the Kwilu valley.

Kongo was ruled by the manikongo ('king'), with Alvaro being the first from the Kwilu tribe. Early information on kings tends to be brief, while later information is often in Portuguese, the kingdom's main European point of contact.

These Europeans strengthened their position along the coastline through an aggressive policy of war and treaty, forming a colony which would become Portuguese Angola, and the modern republic of Angola. They also sent several missions to Kongo's southern neighbour, Ndongo, which ended in disaster in 1579.

1568 - 1587

Stepson of Kongo king. Accession contested.

1569

Following a request by the manikongo, the Portuguese aid the Kongo kingdom (and their own interests) by helping to repel an invasion from the east by the Lunda ethnic group.

Built on a plateau, Mbanza Kongo was centred around a royal residence and cemetery, a customary court and a sacred tree which dominated the kingdom's spirituality but, after the Portuguese arrival, European-style buildings and churches were added to its expanding urban area

1576

Kongo virtually becomes a Portuguese colony. These Europeans are 'allowed' by the manikongo to found what becomes the capital of modern Angola, Luanda, which they use as a base for the slave trade.

1579

Portuguese hopes of regional control are dealt an embarrassing blow when their missions into and support of the southern state of Ndongo end in a disastrous native uprising. The Portuguese flee to Kongo and have to be aided by Kongo's forces to push the Ndongo back into their own lands.

1580 - 1583

The War of the Portuguese Succession is fought between Anthony of Portugal and Philip of Spain. Anthony is pushed out of the country in 1581 and ends up occupying the Azores. Defeated in naval battles, his attempt to secure the throne comes to an end in 1583. Philip gains the throne, theoretically uniting Portuguese and Spanish colonial interests.

The Battle of Monte Claros on 17 June 1665 took place in the third stage of the war between Portugal and Spain, when the Spanish king attempted a sledgehammer approach to cracking the Portuguese nut, although Monte Claros delivered Spain a very bloody nose which effectively terminated the prospect of any further major engagements

1587 - 1614

Son. Defeated brother and rival in single combat.

1590 - 1591

Alvaro II has to manage a serious but poorly-documented internal civil war which appears to be serious, enough so for Miguel of Soyo to achieve a great degree of autonomy which almost amounts to full independence.

1605

The Quilombo of Palmares settlement of escaped slaves is formed in far eastern Brazil (the term 'quilombo' is specifically used for such settlements). The settlement's population is formed largely of free-born enslaved Africans and is ruled by chiefs who apparently have a princely origin within Africa.

One of the last rulers many years later is Zumbi, claimed as a grandson of an unnamed manikongo. Elements of the royal family are captured at the Battle of Mbwila in 1665, so the claim is not without merit.

By the early seventeenth century, slavery in Brazil was a highly profitable business, having been integral to the initial phases of European settlement

1614 - 1615

Son. A brief reign.

1615 - 1622

Brother.

1622

Alvaro III dies after a seven-year reign while his own son is too young to be considered for the succession. Instead Alvaro is succeeded by the first manikongo to come from the Kongo kingdom's Nsundi tribe.

House of Nsundi / Kinkanga (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1622 - 1631

The Kongo kingdom in Africa was formed between about 1375-1400 when the clan states of Mpemba Kasi and Mbata sealed an alliance through marriage. Situated largely in today's Angola, Kongo was ruled by the manikongo ('king'), with Pedro II being the first from the Nsundi province and the Kinkanga tribe. Early information on kings tends to be brief, while later information is often in Portuguese, the kingdom's main European point of contact.

Around 1615, they encouraged imbangala bands which were ravaging the Benguela kingdom to cross the River Kwanza and serve in their colonial armies. They were used well in attacks against Ndongo from 1618. Meanwhile the still-independent Kongo kings had to manage a balancing act between Portuguese interference and the interests of the Spanish. Relations with the latter seemed preferable, but the Portuguese presence in the region made it impossible to act too openly.

1622 - 1624

First Nsundi ruler, to succeed the Kwilu.

1622

Almost immediately upon becoming manikongo, Pedro finds himself tested by the Portuguese. A large army from Portuguese Angola defeats a small Kongo force at the Battle of Mbumbi, with two leading Kongo nobles killed along with many of their troops. Pedro leads the main army to crush the Portuguese and cause an almost-complete expulsion from the kingdom.

Kongo's army primarily consisted of bowmen which, in the face of European weaponry, could often be defeated with comparative ease, but not following the Battle of Mbumbi

1624 - 1626

Son. Ousted by a Kwilu restoration.

1626 - 1631

A Kwilu nephew of Alvari III. Deposed and killed.

1631

Ambrosio's reign is beset by intrigues and conspiracies. His reign ends in a large-scale revolt which sees him captured and killed, to be succeeded by the first manikongo to come from the Kongo kingdom's Kimpanzu tribe.

House of Kimpanzu (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1631 - 1636

The Kongo kingdom in Africa was formed between about 1375-1400 when the clan states of Mpemba Kasi and Mbata sealed an alliance through marriage. Situated largely in today's Angola, Kongo was ruled by the manikongo ('king'), with Alvaro IV being the first from the Kimpanzu tribe following a general revolt against the preceding ruler, Ambrosio.

The Portuguese, who now held so much influence within the kingdom, suffered a loss of authority during a series of wars in 1626 and 1628 against the ruler of Ndongo, thanks to mistakes made by the governor of Portuguese Angola. Negotiations and skirmishes continued until 1639.

1631 - 1636

Another Kwilu ruler, to succeed the Nsundi. Poisoned.

1635 - 1636

Alvaro IV faces the prospect of being made a captive king of his uncle, Daniel da Silva. He is rescued by the Lukeni brothers who command his forces but is apparently poisoned not too long afterwards.

Capuchin missionaries increasingly appeared in Kongo to spread the Christian word and offer baptisms for the people

1636

First Kimpanzu ruler. Lukeni brothers' cousin. Killed.

1636

A cousin to the Lukeni brothers who had placed him on the throne despite his jealously at their power, Alvaro V twice attempts to have them removed by any means necessary. The second attempt sees him being killed, to be succeeded by the first manikongo to come from the Kongo kingdom's Kinlaza tribe.

House of Kinlaza (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1636 - 1665

The Kongo kingdom in Africa was formed between about 1375-1400 when the clan states of Mpemba Kasi and Mbata sealed an alliance through marriage. Now largely forming the republic of Angola, the lands of Kongo were ruled by the manikongo ('king'), with Alvaro VIII being the first from the Kinlaza tribe.

Information on kings remains relatively brief even with the Portuguese presence in the land. Relative peace returned to the kingdom in 1639 following the conclusion of a peace treaty with the troublesome Ndongo state to the south. A new Portuguese governor from 1648 attempted to restore colonial authority as much as possible, although he made little progress.

1636 - 1641

First Kinlaza ruler, to succeed the Kimpanzu.

1640 - 1665

The protracted Portuguese Restoration War (or Acclamation War) is triggered in 1640 by the accession to the Portuguese throne of John 'the Restorer'. It only ends when Portuguese independence of Spain is fully recognised in 1668. The full accession name of Alvaro VI is Alvaro Alphonse Nimi a Lukeni a Nzenze a Ntumba.

Portuguese relations with the Kongo kingdom were usually dictatorial, and they became even more so after a decisive Portuguese victory at the Battle of Mbwila in 1665

1641 - 1660

Nzenze a Ntumba.

1660

Perhaps taking advantage of the situation in the Portuguese Restoration War, Garcia allies himself to the Dutch in what will be a failed attempt to control Portuguese slave traders.

1661 - 1665

Last ruler of a stable Kongo kingdom, before 'Civil War'.

1665

A Portuguese force in 1665 decisively defeats the army of Kongo at the Battle of Mbwila. The manikongo becomes little more than a Portuguese vassal. The kingdom disintegrates into a number of small states, all controlled to varying degrees by Portuguese Angola and all locked in a state of 'Civil War'.

Civil War Kings (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1665 - 1678

The origins of the Kongo kingdom in Africa dated back to 1375-1400. Now largely forming the republic of Angola, the lands of Kongo were ruled by the manikongo ('king'). However, following the Battle of Mbwila (or Ulanga), the kingdom was involved in the long and brutal 'Civil War' period.

The Kimpanzu tribe, with the support of Soyo, was often based at Mbamba Luvota. The rival Kinlaza held Mbula (or Lemba), to the south of the River Congo, and Nkondo in the upper Mbidizi/Lukunga system. A third house ruled in Kibangu, the Agua Rosada which was descended from both of the others. Soyo more or less became independent but regularly intervened in Kongo's affairs.

Defeat at the hands of the Portuguese at Mbwila changed a good deal for the rulers of Kongo. Previously positions of power under the manikongo had fluctuated, sometimes changing titles and powers with each succession of manikonga, sometimes lasting for more than one succession.

During the civil war period there was little time or appetite for such 'fiddling'. Instead positions and titles largely became set in stone, forming a more certain courtly administration for generations to come. While many of the rulers in this period did not recognise the legitimacy of their rivals, the numbering was maintained by later generations to include them all.

1665

House of Kimpanzu to replace Kinlaza (Nov-Dec only).

1665

When Afonso II grabs the throne, the Kinlaza work hard and fast to remove him and place one of their own on the throne. That successor is Alvaro VII, but his reign lasts a little over six months.

While the civil war was ongoing, Portuguese military and missionary involvement in the country certainly decreased, especially once the capital had been sacked

1665 - 1666

House of Kinlaza. Killed by Soyo.

1666 - 1669

House of Kinlaza. Pronounced by Soyo. Killed by Pedro.

1669

House of Kinlaza (Jan-Jun only). Ruled at Lemba to 1680.

1669

While the Kongo kingdom's 'Civil War' period continues, Pedro III continues to claim sovereignty from his fortress capital of Lemba. However Garcia III Nkanga does the same from 1669 from his own Kibangu fortress, although his power never extends beyond that fortress.

1669 - 1670

House of Kimpanzu. Overthrown by Rafael.

1670 - 1673

House of Kimpanzu. Died of natural causes?

1673 - 1674

House of Kimpanzu. Ruled for less than a year.

1674 - 1678

House of Kimpanzu. Killed in sack of São Salvador.

1678

The capital of São Salvador is sacked and destroyed by Pedro III from his base at Lemba. The act considerably weakens the Kongo kingdom's centre to the benefit of rival factions which are based on the kingdom's edges. The Kibangu continue to rule a limited area from their own fortress, while Pedro III asserts his own authority around Lemba.

A Portuguese emissary and his party are granted an audience with the ruling chief in Kongo at an unknown date - quite possibly prior to the advent of civil war in Kongo

House of Kibangu for the Agua Rosada (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1669 - 1709

The three hundred year-old kingdom of Kongo survived a brutal 'Civil War' in the later part of the seventeenth century, although it did not fully end until the early 1700s. Following the destruction of the capital in 1678, the Kinlaza retreated to their fortress at Mbula, otherwise known as Lemba, The legitimate Kinlaza king, Pedro III, continued his reign there for another eleven years, all the while opposing the Kimpanzu kings and eventually to be succeeded by Joao II of Lemba.

The Kimpanzu themselves had retreated south to Mbamba Lovata, which territory was to some extent under the protection of the prince of Soyo. Under the informal leadership of Suzanna de Nobrega they opposed the Kinlaza and any other group which claimed to rule Kongo. The Agua Rosada were descendants of an amalgamation of both Kimpanzu and Kinlaza, even though the two remained firm rivals during the civil war.

The kingdom's population also retreated to the mountains or fell victim to the slavers. The manikongo of Kibangu still claimed sovereignty over the kingdom, but their power rarely extended beyond their fortress until Pedro IV started sending out colonisation groups to repopulate the capital.

1669 - 1685

Claimed kingdom but controlled no more than a fortress.

1678

The capital of São Salvador is sacked and destroyed is sacked and destroyed by Pedro III from his base at Lemba. The act considerably weakens the Kongo kingdom's centre to the benefit of rival factions which are based on the kingdom's edges.

The Kibangu continue to rule a limited area of territory under Garcia III from their own main fortress, while Pedro III asserts his own authority around Lemba.

These oil on paper illustrations show the typical dress of Kongo's ambassadors to the Portuguese at Recife during the 1630s and 1640s, with little likely to have changed by the time of Garcia III

1685

Died shortly after acceding. Sparked succession struggle.

1685 - 1688

Accession disputed by the Agua Rosada. Deposed.

1688

The accession of Manuel I Afonso as successor to André I is disputed by two brothers of the Agua Rosada. These are the product of a Kinlaza-Kimpanzu union, with the Agua Rosada later being formed into an official house by Pedro IV to help reunite the country.

The brothers are ultimately successful in 1688 in their attempts to reunite the majority of the fractured kingdom. The elder of them succeeds, even though the country is still effectively locked in civil war.

1688 - 1695

House of Agua Rosada. Defeated Manuel I.

1695 - 1709

Brother. Reunited kingdom (1709), Created 'Rotating Houses'.

1695 - 1709

Pedro IV gradually gains control over the entire kingdom, completing this programme in 1709 when he deals a notable defeat to João II Nzuzi a Ntamba of the kings of Lemba. He is not regarded as a legitimate ruler by twentieth century descendants of the later manikongos.

The capital of São Salvador would soon be repopulated and redeveloped, expanding to become a major settlement

It takes a descendant of the newly-formed Agua Rosada to become King Garcia V Nkanga a Mvemba in 1803 before a full reunification can be effected of the Kongo kingdom after a period of factionalisation. In the meantime, Pedro IV creates the 'Rotating Houses' to govern the country on a shared basis.

The Period of Rotating Houses (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1709 - 1764

The three hundred year-old kingdom of Kongo had survived a brutal 'Civil War' in the later part of the seventeenth century. Following Dona Beatriz's religious movement which re-populated São Salvador (sacked and abandoned in 1678), Pedro IV seized the kingdom and tried Dona Beatriz for heresy, subsequently executing her.

With the church behind him, he secured Kongo and appeased the opposition faction by ensuring that a Kimpanzu heir would succeed each Kinlaza ruler at the end of his reign - the 'Rotating Houses' period. The Kimpazu had a pretty strong claim to the throne anyway, having supplied occasional kings since Alvaro IV became Kimpazu king in 1631.

Names of rulers where these are shown in red are from the list by Francisco das Necessidades, which was compiled from oral traditions and documents which were found in São Salvador in 1844. Records for the kingdom in the eighteenth century and early nineteenth are sparse. Lists of rulers up to Pedro V can conflict with one another, and little at all is known of the kingdom.

1709 - 1718

Agua Rosada. Reunited the kingdom. Kinlaza ruler.

1709

Only having just secured control of São Salvador to signal the legitimacy of his claim to be ruler of all Kongo following the brutal 'Civil War' period and the Agua Rosada attempts to reunite the country, in the same year Pedro IV of the Kibangu tribe deals a notable defeat to João II of Lemba.

A Capuchin missionary enters a Kongo village within the kingdom in the 1740s, during which a seemingly rare period of relative peace reigned across the land

However, he is not regarded as a legitimate ruler by twentieth century descendants of the later manikongos. His former opponent, Manuel II, succeeds him under the stipulations of the 'Rotating Houses' system.

1718 - 1743

Kimpanzu ruler. Brother of Daniel I.

1743 - 1752

Kinlaza ruler.

1752 - al.1758

Kimpanzu ruler. Ruled after 1758.

c.1758

The Kongo kingdom enters a short period of increased obscurity, despite not being particularly well recorded by history in the first place. The line of kings is known, but dates of rule are not.

The briefness of this period - just five years - and a turnover of five kings suggests intense and open jockeying for position and power, and a degree of internecine conflict. The 'rotating houses' system is being observed, but opponents are attempting to rotate it quickly in their favour.

The kingdom's old capital of Mbanza Kongo was renamed São Salvador in the sixteenth century thanks to the influence of the Portuguese, and is pictured here around 1745

Kinlaza ruler.

Kimpanzu ruler.

? - 1763

Kinlaza ruler. Overthrown.

1763 - 1764

Kimpanzu ruler. Overthrown.

1764

For refusing to acknowledge the agreement regarding rotating houses, Pedro V is overthrown by Alvaro XI. Pedro is later excised from the numbering for all Pedros, with Pedro VI of 1859-1891 signing himself Pedro V from the very start of his reign.

This particular Pedro does not go away, however. Alvaro XI hails from a new ruling house, being known as the Southern Kinlaza, but his death results in Pedro attempting to reclaim the throne.

House of the Southern Kinlaza (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
AD 1764 - c.1790

Now closing in on its fourth century of existence, the Kongo kingdom had survived the brutal 'Civil War' period in the later part of the seventeenth century. It took a religious movement to repopulate the capital of São Salvador, at which time Pedro IV of the Agua Rosada seized the kingdom and ruled as a Kinlaza.

Pedro V of the Kimpanzu was the last Kongo king during the 'Rotating Houses' period. The unusual arrangement suggested by that period's title had been reached in order to secure peace when two houses of fairly equal strength wanted the throne - both houses had previously supplied kings to the throne - and it worked for half a century.

Then Pedro V was overthrown by Alvaro IX whose accession heralded the start of a period of complete control of the throne by the Southern Kinlaza, a branch of one of the two rotating houses of the previous half century whose power base lay to the south of São Salvador. As for Pedro, he withdrew to Mbamba Lovata while Alvaro XI secured his hold on power.

Alvaro and his Kinlaza successors were apparently from a branch of the clan which controlled Nkondo on the upper River Mbidizi. They had held this region since the late 1680s when Ana Afonso de Leao had established herself there. It was there that they became known as 'Southern Kinlaza' to differentiate them from the 'Northern Kinlaza' who were focussed around Mbula, even though the latter were no longer kings.

1764 - 1778

Kivusi clan of the Southern Kinlaza. Ended 'Rotating Houses'.

1778

Alvaro's death allows the dispossessed Pedro V of the 'Rotating Houses' period the opportunity to launch another claim for the throne. His Kimpanzu tribe supports him but the Southern Kinlaza are now in the ascendant. Following a battle outside São Salvador in which they are victorious, it is their candidate who succeeds Alvaro.

The earliest buildings in Mbanza Kongo were made with wood, thatch, and compacted earth materials which the land provided

1778 - 1785

Nkondo clan of the Southern Kinlaza.

1785 - 1787

Brother. Died suddenly (poisoning?).

1787 - ?

Seized the throne. Killed or exiled?

1787 - c.1790

With the unexpected death of Afonso V the succession becomes disputed. Alvaro XII seizes the throne, but his reign is of uncertain length. A period of internecine warfare is likely here, perhaps lasting for up to six years.

While it could be Alexio I Mpanzu a Mbandu who secures the throne, probably around 1790, it is more likely that he is one of those parties which are involved in the strife, and that it is his immediate successor who begins to rebuild the kingdom as Joaquim I of a now-united Kongo.

Kings of Kongo (Kongo Kingdom) (Africa)
c.AD 1790 - 1891

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Close on four hundred years old, the Kongo kingdom had survived a brutal 'Civil War' period in the 1600s, followed by another century of unsettled rule under the 'Rotating Houses' and the 'Southern Kinlaza'. Although regarded as supreme kings of Kongo by the Portuguese, they were in fact the most powerful of the region's various chieftains, these being the mwene (singular, meaning 'lord', or awene, plural).

Various lesser positions also existed in order to maintain the apparatus of state. The manikongo ('kings') did not rule a single unitary kingdom but instead collected tribute from subsidiary chiefs and maintained their loyalty. But for the presence of Portuguese Angola it is most likely that the normal cycle of rise and fall would have continued, perhaps with an eventual unitary kingdom emerging.

A struggle for the throne had been triggered by the unexpected death of Afonso V in 1787. Alvaro XII of the Southern Kinlaza seized control for an unknown period of time but, after his death or defeat at an uncertain date between 1787-1793, the throne passed from house to house in no particular order, and records covering kings and the kingdom itself continued to be very scrappy and sparse.

A good deal of in-fighting was seen during the period, with Garcia V being the one who finally ended the threat of the Southern Kinlaza resuming control. The capital remained at the rebuilt São Salvador (formerly M'banza-Kongo, and today the capital of Zaire province in Angola). Based on the outcome of the Conference of Berlin of 1884-1885, Kongo was mainly incorporated into Portuguese Angola and partially into the reduced 'Independent State of Congo' (or Kongo).

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Elite Women in the Kingdom of Kongo: Historical Perspectives on Women's Political Power, John Thornton (Journal of African History 47, 2006), from Mbanza Kongo/Sao Salvador: Kongo's Holy City, John Thornton, from Urban Africa; Histories in the Making (Africa's Urban Past), David M Anderson & Richard Rathbone (Eds), from Kongo's Incorporation into Angola: A Perspective from Kongo, John Thornton, from Africana: The Encyclopaedia of the African and African American Experience, Anthony Appiah & Henry Louis Gates (Oxford University Press, 2005), from The New Atlas of African History, G S P Freeman-Grenville (Rex Collins, London, 1991), from Times Atlas of World History (Maplewood, 1979), and from External Link: Encyclopaedia Britannica.)

? - 1793

Won the throne from Alvaro XII of Southern Kinlaza?

1793 - 1794

Parentage unknown. Seized the throne?

1794 - 1803

Parentage unknown. Began rebuilding the kingdom.

1803

In an effort to end the factional fighting for the throne, Henrique II agrees a policy of succession with Garcia. Possibly agreeing only to give himself time, in 1803 (or 1805) Garcia proclaims himself sole king.

This illustration shows slaves being transported by canoe, apparently under the control of the kingdom of Kongo - the slave trade was an important source of revenue for many central and western Africa kingdoms, but all that was soon to change

1803 - 1830

Of the Kibangu for the Agua Rosada.

1830 - ?

Son. Of the 'Northern Kinlaza'.

? - 1842

Sometimes merged with André II. Died of lung complications.

1836

In line with prevailing efforts across Europe which are largely being pushed forwards by Britain, Portugal officially abolishes the slave trade south of the equator. The practice of trafficking people largely goes underground and continues until after the First World War.

Legitimate trade switches from the government-controlled 'packaging' of people to individuals working and trading on their own behalf, and a new level of prosperity begins to seep down through society.

1842 - 1857

Of the 'Southern Kinlaza'. a Nsindi a Nimi a Lukeni.

1857 - 1859

Son. Expelled.

1857

As the son of Henrique III, Alvaro gains the throne upon his father's death with the support of the electors. He is opposed by Pedro, usually shown as being a son of one of Henrique's sisters.

Nkisi, known as 'Chingunge N', is a Kongo wood-and bone artwork which was created between 1882 and 1903, mostly likely during the Kongo kingdom's reduced status as 'Independent State of Congo'

Pedro is expelled from São Salvador and seeks support from the Portuguese who have recently captured Bembe for Portuguese Angola, with Bembe lying to the south of Pedro's own southerly domain. Then he embarks on a drawn-out campaign which ends with Alvaro being driven out.

1859 - 1888

Cousin (sometimes shown as brother). Vassal to 1891.

1859

Pedro VI now has full control of the kingdom. His power-base lies around Madimba, which is to the south of the capital at São Salvador. This is territory inherited from the 'Southern Kinlaza'. From the very start of his reign Pedro refers to himself as Pedro V, excising from the records Pedro V Ntivila a Nkanga (1763-1764) of Kimpanzu (king briefly during the period of 'Rotating Houses').

In 1914, Portugal would be far too busy with the threat to its colonial possessions which would be posed by imperial Germany to be able to worry overmuch about Kongo

1888

Pedro VI signs the Treaty of Vassallage with Portugal. Based on the outcome of the Conference of Berlin of 1884-1885, the territory of Kongo is incorporated mostly into Portuguese Angola and partially into the 'Independent State of Congo' (today largely but not entirely within the modern Democratic Republic of Congo).

Local resistance persists, however, and the manikongo rule a reduced kingdom, firstly under Pedro and then under his son, Alvaro. This is the 'Independent State of Congo' (or Kongo).