European Kingdoms

Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Dynasty of Theodosius (AD 395-457)

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From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

The accession of Honorius (in the west) and Arcadius (in the east) was marked by a basic change in the internal role of the emperor. This affected east and west differently. Eastern Roman emperors after the death of Theodosius 'the Great' in 395 were heads of state but no longer held effective power. This now fell into the hands of their chief ministers.

The change was complete in the west where the emperors come across as being virtually powerless and almost overshadowed by their chief military officer, but it was less so in the east where occasional emperors still took direct command.

Perhaps the crucial difference was that in the east the ministers usually were civilians, but in the west they were almost without exception professional soldiers who tended to dominate their emperors. Due partially to this, and to a series of seemingly unending problems, Honorius' reign was characterised by the erosion of the Western Roman empire and its territories.

Within the 'Dynasty of Theodosius', the initial rule of the young Arcadius and then Theodosius II saw the Eastern Roman half of the empire also on somewhat shaky ground. This was not helped by great instability in the upper Balkans which was caused by the arrival and domination of the Huns, but the seventeen year-old Arcadius was also dominated by his praetorian prefect in much the same way as his ten year-old brother in the west was dominated by Flavius Stilicho.

Even so, the eastern empire was on firmer ground than its western counterpart. During the fifth century that seemed to lurch from one disaster to another. Once matters in the east had stabilised, the short reign in the east of Marcian between 450-457 was recognised as a golden age of relative peace.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813, Cyril Mango & Roger Scott (1997), from Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit, Volume 1, Ralph-Johannes Lilie, Claudia Ludwig, Thomas Pratsch, & Ilse Rochow, from the World Heritage Encyclopaedia, from the BBC series, Mary Beard's Ultimate Rome: Empire Without Limit, presented by Mary Beard and first screened between 27 April-18 May 2016, from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), and from External Links: History Extra, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Jewish Encyclopaedia, and History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Byzantine Empire (World History).)

395 - 408

Son of Theodosius, last ruler of a unified Rome.

395

'Praetorian prefect'. True power behind the throne. Killed.

395

With the Roman empire finally having divided permanently between the Eastern Roman and Western Roman portions, a state of affairs has been acknowledged which has already existed in practise for many years.

Silver ingots from the late fourth or early fifth century were used to pay soldiers and civil servants in the late Roman empire, with these being discovered at the site of the Tower of London, and at Reculver and Richborough in Kent

In a reorganisation which takes place in the late fourth century (and probably very close to this division), Syria Palaestina is divided in three. The main aim is to give each governor a smaller and more solidly-organised defensive base. Together, all of these provinces are part of the newly-created Dioceses Orientis.

395 - 399

Eunuch advisor and then consul. Exiled and executed.

397 - 402

Alaric of the Visigoths retreats into Epirus and the Western Roman military commander, Stilicho, is forbidden by the Eastern Roman government from pursuing him (primarily to curb Stilicho's assumed power).

Granted the rank of magister militum per Illyricum by the Eastern Romans around 399 in order to protect the area from takeover by the Western Romans, Alaric leads his people through the Alps and winters in northern Italy in 401. Stilicho collects all his available forces, including units from Britain, to stop Alaric's advance in 402, although the encounter is not decisive.

Turkic origins are hard to pin down precisely, but the region around the Altai mountains would seem to have served as a general incubator during their development, and the Romans would soon come to know them (click or tap on map to view full sized)

405

Arcadius is dominated by his praetorian prefect, Anthemius, who is the real power behind the throne. To an extent this is voluntary on the part of the emperor, as he willingly delegates power to Anthemius.

405 - 408

Praetorian prefect. True power behind the throne.

408

The praetorian prefect attempts to heal many of the wounds of several years of political conflict with Stilicho in the Western Roman empire, right up to Stilicho's execution in 408, coincidentally the same year in which the still-young Arcadius dies (aged thirty), leaving an equally young son to succeed him.

408 - 450

Son, aged 7. Officially augustus from 402.

414 - 450

Augusta. Sister, guardian, and advisor. m Marcian. Died 453.

423 - 425

Upon the death of the Western Roman emperor, Honorius, his patrician elevates Johannes as western emperor. Theodosius II elevates Valentinian III first to western caesar, and then to western co-emperor as augustus.

The origins of the Euganei, Ligurians, Raeti, Veneti, and Vindelici are confused and unclear, but in the last half of the first millennium BC they were gradually being Celticised or were combining multiple influences to create hybrid tribes (click or tap on map to view full sized)

Late in 424 he sends Aëtius to the Huns to seek military help, but while Aëtius is away Johannes is betrayed and captured. Aëtius returns with a sizable Hunnic army, coming to an agreement which establishes the political landscape of the Western Roman empire for the next thirty years. The Huns are paid off and sent home, while Aëtius is promoted to magister militum.

Having sorted out the Huns, Theodosius II orders the Jewish Sanhedrin to be disbanded. Roman persecution continues off-and-on, while Jewish resentment continues to trigger various incidents which do little to help their case.

431

The Papal Third Council (Ephesus) is held, with involvement from the influential Augusta Pulcheria (the emperor's sister and advisor). Nestorianism is condemned and the nature of Christ's human and divine forms is discussed. Part of the result is that Mary is confirmed as the 'Mother of God'.

The fifth century fresco of Bishop Cerula in the San Gennaro catacomb, Naples, destroys the myth that only men ministered to the faithful in the early church and instead adds support to the theory that women played a vital role in the church's early success

434 - 453

Although highly successful in his initial command of the Huns, Attila never takes his people into the Roman empire to settle amongst the rich villa estates. Instead he leads major incursions into Western Roman, Eastern Roman, and Goth territory.

450 - 457

Former soldier. m Pulcheria, granddaughter of Theodosius I.

451

The Papal Fourth Council (Chalcedon) is held, with most of its leaders being Greeks from the Eastern Roman empire. Monophysitism is condemned, but the fatal disaffection of Syria and Egypt is effected (the former eventually forms the Syriac Orthodox Church which survives to the present day).

457

Following Marcian's death, the powerful General Flavius Ardabur Aspar with his Germanic army in Roman service now becomes a kingmaker of sorts. As a successor he passes over Marcian's son, Anthemius, instead selecting Leo in the hope of being able to control him. As Leo I he is the first emperor of the dynasty of Leo.

An interpretation of Genseric's sack of Rome in AD 455 by the Russian artist, Karl Briullov, painted between about 1833-1836, perhaps the key moment in the city's fifth century decline