Far East Kingdoms

Afghan (Turkic) Ghaznavid Dynasty (Southern Khorasan)
AD 977 - 1186

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The Yamanids claimed descent from the last of the Sassanid kings, Yazdagird III, whose family had fled the Islamic invasion in AD 651. They had resettled in early Turkestan to intermarry with the locals over the subsequent three centuries. In the early tenth century one of their number, Sebuktigin, was captured by a neighbouring Turkic tribe.

He ended up being purchased by Alptigin, the Turkic-born ex-slave governor of 'Samanid Subject' Southern Khorasan. Sebuktigin succeeded Alptigin and his short-lived successors in 977 to become governor of the city of Ghazni in southern Khorasan, thereby founding a Ghaznavid dynasty (sometimes Ghaznevids). The city is located a hundred and twenty kilometres to the south-west of Kabul, with both being in modern Afghanistan (Ghazni is now an eastern province).

Sebuktigin immediately began strengthening his domains and increasing his territory. This was at a time in which both the ruling Samanids themselves and the Buwayids in the west were fading in power. However, while the kingdom was essentially independent it perhaps still showed nominal allegiance to the Samanids.

For the most part, Lahore was the easternmost bastion of Ghazni power, although they frequently raided farther east. That eastwards presence played a major part in introducing Islam into India. Bist (otherwise known as Bost or Bust) became the winter Ghaznavid capital, perhaps especially because its climate was entirely suitable for war elephants.

Located on the junction between the River Argandab and the Helmand, the city had served as an early outpost of Islam in the region. Before that it was within the area which had been dominated by the 'Benefactors' of Persia's Cyrus the Great, the Ariaspae people of Indo-Iranian Central Asia.

During the tenth century migrations of Turkic peoples from Central Asia, one group which was led by a chief named Seljuq settled itself in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya (the River Jaxartes) and later converted to the Sunni form of Islam. They supplied frontier defence forces for the Samanids, and later for Yamin-ud-Dawlah Mahmud of the Ghaznavids from 998.

Seljuq's two grandsons, Chaghri Beg and Toghrïl Beg, enlisted Iranian support to win realms of their own, conquering Khorasan, western Iran and Mesopotamia to create a much greater empire than the one controlled by the Ghaznavids.

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(Information by Peter Kessler and the John De Cleene Archive, with additional information by Edward Dawson, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate, Gao Yang (Tenth Türk Tarih Kongresi, Ankara 1986), from Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri: Giriş, beslenme teknikleri, Burhan Oğuz (1976), from The Turks in World History, Carter Vaughn Findley (Oxford University Press 2005), from The Origins of Northern China's Ethnicities, Zhu Xueyuan (Beijing 2004), from Ethnogenesis in the tribal zone: The Shaping of the Turks, Peter Benjamin Golden (2005), from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), from An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, Peter B Golden (1992), from Times Atlas of World History, (Maplewood, 1979), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge, 1910), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Turkish Cultural Foundation.)

977 - 997

Son-in-law of Samanid Alptegin. First Yamanid Ghaznavid.

994

The Samanid ruler faces internal uprisings, and Sebuktigin of the Ghaznavids goes to his assistance. The rebels are defeated at Balkh and then Nishapur, and Sebuktigin is granted the title 'Nasir ud-Din' ('Hero of the Faith'), while his son, Mahmud, is made governor of Khwarazm.

Shown here are two sides of a typical Abbasid-era coin, with this one being nineteen millimetres in diameter, issued in Samarkand, which was soon taken by the Samanids

997

Mahmud of Khwarazm campaigns against the Qara-Khitaï to the north, in Central Asia, but is ultimately defeated. His failure is a harbinger of problems to come where the Qara-Khitaï are concerned. However, during his reign Sebuktigin is able to establish a vassal emirate in Makran in Southern Khorasan.

997 - 998

Son. Captured and imprisoned for life.

998

Ismail is Sebuktigin's chosen heir, but Mahmud of Khwarazm, his elder half-brother, contests his claim to the Ghaznavid throne. Initially in command of Nishapur, Mahmud hands it over to his uncle, Borghuz, and younger brother, Nur-ud-Din Yusuf, and marches on Ghazni. The capital city is captured and Mahmud claims the throne, imprisoning his brother in a fort in Joorjan.

999 - 1005

The Turkic Karakhanids depose the Samanid emir, Mansur II, allied with the Buwayids who are supreme in south-western Iran and Mesopotamia. The Karakhanids briefly take possession of areas of what is now Afghanistan before being ousted by the Ghaznavids in 1005. The Abbasid caliph in Baghdad soon recognises the Ghaznavids as the temporal successors to the Samanids.

This computer-generated image of Ghaznavid regular troops provides a pretty good replica of the real thing which can be somewhat hard to pin down in contemporary illustrations from a region which was in a near-constant state of warfare at this time

998 - 1030

Brother. Former governor of Khwarazm. First sultan.

1003

Khalaf I of Saffarid-controlled Seistan has long been exhibiting irrational behaviour, including the act of putting to death his own son, Tāher. He has largely alienated popular support within Seistan in favour of the Ghaznavids.

Yamin-ud-Dawlah Mahmud is now able to march into Seistan, defeat the emir, and carry him off into captivity where he later dies. Seistan now becomes a province of the growing Ghaznavid empire (as does the ancient province of Carmania), and the once-mighty Saffarid house is extinguished. A Nasrid malik is soon put in place to govern Seistan.

1008

Mahmud is responsible for turning his once-small kingdom into a large empire, and for transforming Ghazni from a small regional capital into a large and wealthy city.

Turning his attentions eastwards, he defeats the Rajput confederacy, conquering Gwalior, Kannauj, Nagarkot, Thanesar, and Ujjain and leaving them in the hands of native client kings, as well as regularly raiding further into India. Soon afterwards, Balkh is brought under direct control after the death of its friendly emir, Abu Nasr Mohammad.

Somnath Temple in Patan in Gujarat, which was rebuilt by Nagabhatta II of Kannauj (805-833) and rebuilt again in the late twentieth century

1017 - 1019

Making good the loss of AD 995, Mahmud conquers the emirate of Khwarazm after the emir (his relative) is killed in a rebellion. He apparently regains 'Greater Khorasan' in its entirety which also includes territory to the south of the present emirate and small principalities such as that of Ghor.

Within two years, Mahmud also begins a much greater invasion of India, notably by sacking Kannauj, the capital of the Pratihara kingdom. However, even though Rajputana is divided amongst small warring states Mahmud finds himself being repulsed by the Rajput Chandelas.

1023

Mahmud conquers the Punjab of the Pallavas while the entire region is still suffering from the disruption which has been caused by the very recent Chola invasion.

1030

The death of Mahmud ends the dominance of the Ghaznavids. Conflicts between various Ghaznavid claimants and lesser rulers arise (such as the Seljuq Turks). As a result the empire starts to crumble, and Makran is lost to revolt.

The Ghaznavid governor of Seistan, Nasr, soon declares his independence and founds a Nasrid emirate there, based around the Nimruz province of modern Afghanistan (the country's south-western corner, abutting Iran to the west and what is now Pakistan to the south).

Shown here is the obverse side of a coin which was issued during the reign of the founder of the Nasrid dynasty, Tadj al-Din I Abu l-Fadl Nasr at Seistan, an important eastern Iranian city in what is now Afghanistan

1030 - 1031

Son. Overthrown and imprisoned.

1031

Mohammed is the younger of twins, and his accession leads to strife between him and his brother, Masud. Masud wins, overthrowing Mohammed and claiming the throne. Mohammed is blinded and imprisoned.

1031 - 1040

Twin brother. Imprisoned and murdered.

1040

Masud is unable to preserve his father's empire. Disastrously defeated by Seljuq Turks at the Battle of Dandanqan, he loses the western Ghaznavid territories, including Khwarazm and the already largely-independent Seistan.

In reduced circumstances his successors continue to rule much of the territory which later becomes Afghanistan and also areas of northern India. Masud himself is deposed by a rebellion of his own troops, and his brother is restored. Masud is assassinated whilst in prison.

1040 - 1041

Restored, but killed by Mawdud in revenge for Masud's death.

1041

Responding to the death of his father and the seizure of the throne, Mawdud gathers together his forces from his governor's base in Balkh and marches on Ghazni. Mohammed is overthrown and then executed by him.

Under the Ghaznavids, the small town of Ghazni was built up into a rich and important city, with it today lying in the east of Afghanistan

1041 - 1049

Nephew (son of Masud). Seized throne. Not fully recognised.

1041

Mawdud's brother in Lahore does not recognise his rule, but he soon dies, leaving Lahore to be ruled directly from Ghazni. Some of the empire's extreme eastern territories are lost to rebellion, however, and the empire continues its slow decline with a series of short-lived rulers and internal disputes. Details about these are scarce.

1049

Son. Died, circumstances unknown.

1049 - 1050

Uncle (son of Masud I). Betrayed by vizier & killed.

1050 - 1053

Captured & executed, along with 11 other princes.

1051 - 1053

The Ghaznavid general, Tughril, leads an army against one of the great Oğuz military leaders of the Seljuqs, Alp Arslan. He wins a battle at Hupyan in the Hindu Kush during the winter of 1051, before failing to take the fortress of Taq near Seistan.

Instead, and with a fresh victory in the field against the Seljuqs, he declares his disloyalty to his Ghaznavid commander, Izz-ud-Dawlah Abd al-Rashid. He captures Ghazni with his experienced army, and then executes Rashid and eleven other princes of the noble dynasty.

However, he fails to win support from his Ghaznavid peers in other strongholds and is quickly murdered by a ghulam (slave soldier) named Nushtigin.

A stone relief of Seljuq cavalry, which swept through Iran, northern Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia in the eleventh century

1053

Turkic slave general & usurper. Murdered.

1053 - 1059

Son of Masud I. Generally enjoyed a peaceful reign.

1059 - 1099

Brother. Last great Ghaznavid.

1059

Ibrahim re-establishes a truncated empire after the unstable two decades preceding his rule. He agrees peace terms with the Seljuqs and restores cultural and political links, although apparently he is not able to restore Ghaznavid dominance of Seistan.

However, the empire is increasingly sustained only by riches which have been gained in raids across northern India, and the Rajput rulers there offer stiff resistance.

1072

Seljuq Sultan Alp Arslan decides to recapture Turkestan, the ancestral home of the Seljuk Turks. The region may be under the domination of the Ghaznavids at this time. He reaches the banks of the Oxus where a number of fortresses prevent further advance. Yussuf Kothual, the Khwarazmian governor of one of the fortresses, delays him for several days before surrendering.

Yussuf is brought before Alp Arslan, who condemns him to a cruel death. Yussuf draws his dagger and attacks the Seljuq commander, who waves away his guards before drawing a bow on the attacker, But he stumbles in his haste and the arrow misses. Yussuf plunges his dagger into Alp Arslan's breast, and the sultan dies of the wound a few hours later, on 15 December 1072.

The Seljuq ruler of Khwarazm, Ahmad Sanjar (1097-1157), held territory in the wider region of Khorasan while his brother commanded as the 'Great Sultan' in Iran, but Ahmad's dominance of the east increased beyond that of a subsidiary ruler so that, in 1119, he was able to challenge for command of central Iran itself and control of the title of 'Great Sultan'

1099 - 1115

Son. Died.

1115

Masud's death begins a period of instability and the further decline of the empire. His sons fight amongst themselves for the throne, with Bahram Shah eventually winning out.

1115

Son. Overthrown by Arslan after less than a year.

1115 - 1118

Brother. Defeated in battle by Bahram Shah. Imprisoned.

1118

Bahram Shah wins the internecine fight with his brothers, but only as a vassal of the Seljuqs. However, the death in the same year of the great Seljuq sultan, Muhammad Tapar, results in the enforced division of Seljuq territory.

1118 - 1152

Brother. Seljuq vassal. Forced to Lahore in 1150.

1119

A vassal of the Seljuq 'Great Sultan', Mahmud II, is one Garshasp II, the Kakuyid emir of the eastern Iranian cities of Abarkuh and Yazd. Now disgraced, Mahmud removes him from office by force. Garshasp, however, escapes and returns to Yazd where he requests protection from his brother-in-law, Mahmud's rival in the east, Ahmad Sanjar.

Giving Ahmad all sorts of intelligence on Mahmud's defences and forces, Garshasp persuades him to launch an attack on central Iran. Ahmad's coalition army of five kings defeats Mahmud at Saveh. The kings are known to include Garshasp, the emirs of Khwarazm and Seistan, and two others who are unnamed.

Taj al-Dunya Arslan of Khwarazm, pictured here at the start of his reign in 1156 (seated on the throne, centre-right), was one of a long line of shahs of this region of greater Persia until its conquest by the Mongols

The east (Khwarazm and much of Iran) is now under the overall control of Ahmad Sanjar, Mahmud's uncle, although he has already dominated the eastern Iranian lands for many years. Garshasp has been restored to his domains while Mahmud now rules only in Iraq and the westernmost fringes of Iran.

1146

The Ghurids begin to assert their control in the region in the face of weakening Ghaznavid control. They gradually chisel away at Ghaznavid holdings and establish their own increasing dominance in the region.

Raids into Ghaznavid Indian territories also begin to weaken their hold there (these holdings will later form the basis of the Delhi sultanate).

1150

The Ghaznavid emirate is effectively brought to an end when Ghazni is captured by the Ghurids. Ghaznavid power continues in northern India alone, with them ruling from Lahore, although they do briefly recapture Ghazni in 1157.

The temple complex at Pattadakal reached the peak of its development under the Western Chalukya kings who dominated a great swathe of India in the eleventh century

1152 - 1160

Son. In Lahore (and Ghazni in 1157).

1160 - 1186

Son. In Lahore. Defeated by Ghurids. Imprisoned & killed.

1186

Having barely managed to keep Lahore independent for a number of years (at least once paying off an attacker to get them to pull back), Khusrau Malik is unable to repeat the same trick just one more time. Lahore is conquered by the Ghurids who also inherit Pallava Punjab.