According to tradition, the Israelites were Semitic émigrés from southern
Mesopotamia who left
the city of Ur during the reign
of Hammurabi of Babylonian,
when his empire was at its height. A confederation of tribes, they initially
settled on the coast of the Dead Sea, before being forced to emigrated to
Egypt, only
to return centuries later to form small kingdoms in
Canaan during the period of
deep social unrest around and after 1200 BC.
Oral history almost always has a core truth at its heart (something that can
be forgotten by scholars who wander off at tangents with imaginative theories
about tribal origins). The assertion that the Israelites came from Mesopotamia
has to be taken at face value. However, it doesn't necessarily have to refer
to a wave of thirteen tribes and several hundred or more tribespeople
wandering into Canaan. Archaeology alone has disproved this version of
events. Instead, as with tribal associations everywhere in history, the
arrivals probably formed a small but powerful - and possibly more
technologically advanced - group that quickly became a ruling nobility over
Canaanite tribes. As with other such cases, such as various tribes of the
Celts and
Germanics,
or the Mitanni when
they arrived to dominate the
Hurrians, the new arrivals were in command, but their own customs were
quickly replaced by those of their majority subjects, making them also look
Canaanite in origin. The simplest answer is usually the best one.
In their early years the Israelites were probably more usually known as
habiru (which may
or may not be a source for the name 'Hebrew') when they migrated into Canaan
from Mesopotamia, and also when they supposedly invaded Canaan in the twelfth
century BC through Edom and
Moab, penetrating as far north
as Amurru in
Syria. This term seems first
to have been used for a range of outsiders, from unemployed farm labourers
and vagrants to mounted mercenary archers. The context differed depending
upon where the references were found. Although it may originally have
referred to just about any marginal people who lived outside state controls,
there is nothing to preclude one such group becoming the later Hebrews.
While the Bible's Old Testament is the primary source for much of the
information on the second and first millennium BC Israelites, the Jewish
historian, Flavius Josephus, also provides a highly interesting
interpretation in Greek for his predominantly
Roman
audience in his massive work, Jewish Antiquities. The early parts
of this list are largely made up of a combination of incidents from both
sources. The dating agrees with sources such as Oxford, but others date
Abraham to about 2000 BC, Joseph at about 1800 BC, Moses at about 1400 BC,
and David and Solomon at 1000/900 BC. There are various chronologies which
differ to some degree (the orthodox dating, or Thiele, Usher, or Rohl (an
exceptionally unorthodox dating which has been greeted with near-universal
disdain), Velikovsky, and Courville included). The book of Genesis provides
Terah's ancestry back to Noah, many of whose members are fanciful attempts
to link to ancient kingdoms and states, but the ages of the earliest figures
mentioned must be taken with a pinch of salt. The names of direct descendants,
though, may well be correct, part of an oral tradition which, in any culture,
has always placed a strong emphasis on ensuring an unbroken list of ancestors.
These names are shown below with a lilac background to highlight their
near-mythical status. Spellings are various, taken from Hebrew and Greek
sources mainly.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean Bambrough
(on Israelite dating, the figure of Joseph, and the Amarna letters) and Wayne
McCleese (the list of Abraham's ancestors), from The Amarna Letters,
William L Moran (1992), from the Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance
of the Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder (Gen Ed, 1986), from A Test of Time,
David Rohl (Arrow, 2001), from A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud
Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature, Marcus Jastrow
(G P Putnam's Sons, 1903), from the Book of Jubilees (otherwise
known as the Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), by unknown ancient Jewish
religious authors), from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities,
Flavius Josephus, and from the NOVA/PBS documentary series, The Bible's
Buried Secrets, first broadcast 18 November 2008.)
fl c.2090s? BC
Noah
Son. Aged 100 when Arphaxad born.
c.2090? BC
The
Old Testament provides a list of descendants from Noah to Abraham, along
with the ages of each descendant at the time his own son is born. While many
of those ages seem plausible, the earliest do not. A rough calculation of
about twenty to thirty years for each generation supplies an approximate
date of 2090 BC for Noah. His Israelite descendants supposedly emigrate from
Ur around 1750 BC, but
while there is no confirmation either way that they have previously been
long term residents of Ur or its immediate environs, much of their
story probably comes from this region (including the Biblical flood, which
can be equated with the
Sumerian Flood
story).
The Sumerian flood story includes a depiction of a large vessel
which is packed with various objects and, presumably, animals,
clearly showing a basis for the later Old Testament flood story
of Noah and the ark
fl c.2060s? BC
Shem
Son. Aged 100 when Arphaxad born.
The sons of Shem are said to be Arphaxad, Elam, Asshur, Lud, and Aram. While
the first name is of uncertain origin (and therefore possibly genuine), the
others are clearly attempts to create founder figures for several important
ancient kingdoms. Elam relates
to the region of that name, and an important and powerful kingdom at this
time. Asshur (Ashur) is
the name of a northern
Mesopotamian city
state - one of three - which together are better known as Assyria. Lud is
connected with
Lydia (the Luddu of Assyrian records) and their
Luwian predecessors
(although the Assyrian Lubdu in areas of western
Media may be a better
connection). Aram is the father of Uz ben Shem, a founder figure for
Damascus.
fl c.2030s? BC
Arphaxad / Arpachshad
Son. Aged 35 when Salah born.
fl c.2010s? BC
Salah / Shelah / Sala
Son (or son of Cainan, son of Arphaxad). Aged 30 for Eber.
fl c.1880s? BC
Eber / Heber
Son. Aged 34 when Peleg born. Inhabitant of
Babylon?
The name Eber appears to relate to 'crossing over and the beyond'. This has
been deciphered as an origin for the name 'Hebrew' and a meaning suggesting
the crossing of the Euphrates and the land beyond it, clearly a reference to
the later Israelite migration westwards. Eber is an ancestor figure of the
Israelites and the Ishmaelites (Ishmael being a son of Abraham), as well as
of the original Arabs in
Islamic tradition.
The Book of Jubilees mentions the Biblical Nimrod, king of
Babylon, name in its
Greek form, Nebrod, as being the father of Azurad, the wife of Eber and
mother of Peleg. This account would therefore make him an ancestor of the
Israelites themselves. As the leaders of the latter can be dated approximately,
so too can Nimrod, although it places him at the very start of Babylon's rise
as a major city state. Eber is claimed to be present during the building of
Nimrod's 'Tower of Babel', while Peleg witnesses the division of humanity
into speakers of different languages.
fl c.1860s? BC
Peleg / Phaleg
Son. Aged 30 (or 130) when Reu born.
fl c.1830s? BC
Reu / Ragau
Son. Aged 32 when Serug born.
fl c.1800? BC
Serug / Saruch
Son. Aged 30 (or 130) when Nahor born. An inhabitant of
Ur.
fl c.1770s? BC
Nahor / Nachor / Naghor
Son. Aged 29 when Terah born. An inhabitant of
Ur.
c.1752 - 1750 BC
Terah
Son. Aged 70 when
Abraham born. Began the exodus from
Ur.
c.1750 BC
Terah
leads his people to settle in Harran,
a city far up and to the east of the Euphrates, near the
Hatti, where he dies.
His son, Abraham, inherits the leadership, and begins to formulate his
theories of a single God of which he determines to persuade all others,
unless they can come up with a better theory that persuades him otherwise.
Abraham also adopts his brother's son, Lot, as his own (presumably as his
potential successor in light of his own failure to produce a son). They
head south to Canaan where
Abraham occupies the region around the later Jebusite city of Hebron, and
Lot the plain near the River Jordan and the city of Sodom.
This slightly fanciful view of the migrating Israelites does
show a surprisingly small number of participants (more are
cropped off from the left, but even so their numbers are very
finite), something that chimes with the 'ruling elite' theory
of migration detailed in the introduction, above
The Old Testament also reports on the 'five cities of the plain' in
Canaan,
which include Salem, as well
as their overlords who come into conflict with the Israelites. Lot comes
to the assistance of his neighbours, the people of Sodom. Later in his
life, Abraham is credited with introducing circumcision to the Israelites,
at a time when they are clearly still tent dwellers.
Moab,
first son of Lot (after the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah) and grandnephew
of Abraham, gains the stretch of land between the River Arnon and the Brook of
Zered on the coast of the Dead Sea. This area forms the kingdom of
Moab. Ben Ammi, an illegitimate son
of Lot, gains Ammon, east of the
River Jordan and on Moab's northern border.
A late son of Abraham, Isaac is his successor as leader
of the early Israelites. He lives much of his life in Hebron and eventually
dies there, but with at least one interruption in the meantime - during a
period of famine he (and by inference his tribe) is forced to seek refuge
with the
Canaanite
ruler of later
Philistine
territory, Abimelech of Gerar (son of the Abimelech who had previously had
dealings with Abraham). Abimelech later visits Isaac when he is encamped at
Beer-sheba, and expresses a desire to renew the covenant which had been
entered into between their fathers.
Isaac's eldest son is Esau, and he eventually gains his birthright (despite
his brother's attempts to steal it from him). This is the land that is centred
around Mount Seir, from the Brook of Zered to the Sinai peninsula, which
becomes the kingdom of Edom.
Jacob
spends some years in Harran, where he meets his wives. As he returns them
and his large family to Hebron, Jacob stops off at the
Canaanite
city of Shechem where his daughter is attacked, so Jacob's sons slay all
the males within the city walls. Upon his return home, Jacob succeeds Isaac
as the leader of his people, with his twelve sons forming the basis of the
later tribes of Israel.
The
Israelites are presumed to descend into Egypt to escape famine just as Lower
Egypt is invaded and governed by the
Hyksos,
probably making their entrance and acceptance there easier. They settle in
the region of modern Cairo, at first as welcomed guests but later enduring
worsening conditions and eventually slavery. According to the available
sources, Joseph is the focus of Hebrew leadership when they first arrive
there, but their deteriorating conditions mean that the situation four
hundred years later is very different, with no apparent ruling house,
although a Hebrew nobility survives.
More recent theories have diverted away from the idea that it is Hyksos
Egypt that the Israelites enter. Some scholars place the early Israelites
even earlier, by as much as four centuries, with them interacting with
Twelfth Dynasty Egypt. Another school of thought prefers a much earlier period,
Third Dynasty Egypt under Zoser, based on the idea that early Egyptian
dating is still incorrect, with Menes being placed up to seven hundred years
too early.
Sons, but no claims of leadership made for them in sources.
Levi
Elder brother of Joseph.
Caath
Son.
Amram
Son.
c.1371 - 1358 BC
The
Amarna letters between
Egypt
and Assyria,
and the city states of
Syria
and Canaan,
describe the disruptive activities of the
habiru, painting
them as a threat to the stability of the region.
Rohl's discredited theory is that the habiru of the Amarna letters
are the later Israelites
of David. Findings may indicate that the three years of drought, famine, and
plague of the Amarna letters and those of David's time may be same, but of
course there is nothing to say that similar events could not be repeated over
the course of the three or four hundred years between the usual dating for these
two. Another theory is that Moses (an individual who is probably much closer to
the period in which the Amarna letters are written than is David) is 'the rebel
Mesh' of amelut-sagaz-Mesh (habiru) of the Amarna letters.
c.1230 BC
By
this time, four hundred years after their descent into
Egypt
(a few scholars say only two hundred years), the Hebrews have multiplied from a
band of seventy into a people numbering thousands, but they have been reduced
to slavery. A nobility still exists, however, and is represented in the sources
by the descendants of Levi. The most recent of his descendants is Moses, who
possibly fulfils the role of an advisor or even minister to an unnamed
pharaoh who may be Ramses II.
He now leads the loose confederation of Israelite tribes out of Egypt,
shortly after his marriage to a
Midianite woman,
Zipporah daughter of Jethro the Midian priest. Moses is also claimed as an
ancestor figure of the early
Ethiopian
kings. Strangely, and perhaps not coincidentally, the Old Testament has
Moses first encountering his god, Yahweh, in the form of a burning bush
when he reaches the land of the Midianites. Egyptian records mention that
the Midianites (whom they know as Shasu) are found at a place called YHW
(probably pronounced 'yahoo') in the deserts of southern Jordan. The name
seems to be picked up by the Israelites and passed on to others they meet
in Canaan.
This
is the period of Israelite settlement after the traditional exodus from
Egypt.
At this time, there is general instability in the region: the
Hittite
empire is destroyed in Anatolia, the
Canaanites
begin to be reduced to owning the shores of
Lebanon (to eventually
become the sea traders known as the
Phoenicians), the
Philistines
and other Sea Peoples
are first settling on the lower coast of the Levant, and various neo-Hittite
city states are arising in northern
Syria,
many of which come into contact with the Israelites.
It has been strongly suggested that the Israelites themselves are Canaanites,
and that the exodus never occurs. This theory seems to be backed up by
archaeological finds, and in recent years the idea has gained strengthen.
The climate-induced social collapse of the end of the thirteenth century
BC - and the long lead-up towards it of perhaps a century - results in groups
of dispossessed people congregating in Canaan in new groups, new communities.
Known by the established powers by various names, including
habiru, these
groups would appear in essence to be drop-outs from established society,
people who want to find a new way of living outside what they see as an unjust
and restrictive society. Following the social collapse, which terminates the
Hittites and results in the declining fortunes of Egypt, these new communities
seemingly emerge as a new people, with new, unfussy pottery, little art,
simplistic houses with no grand structures, and the beginnings of a
monotheistic culture (the followers of Yahweh - see circa 1230 BC,
above). They have formed the people known as the Israelites.
If, on the other hand, the exodus is at its core accurate, if somewhat
exaggerated, then the Old Testament affords an almost unique look at the
settlement of a people in the ancient Near East. There is no evidence
to support a mass migration, but the movement of a smaller group is viable.
As they arrive and settle in the region, these Israelites may join up with
the habiru who have settled in the hill country, and they may be
joined by late additions to their confederation of tribes: the tribes of
Asher and Dan appear to originate from the
Weshesh and
Danya. In local
politics the Israelites have various dealings with the city states in the
Dead Sea region of Canaan and southern Syria. These are mostly attempts at
conquest, successful or otherwise.
1208 BC
In
a brief addendum to his victory stele. Pharaoh Merneptah of
Egypt mentions that Ashkelon,
Gaza, and Yanoam (in the north Jordan Valley) have been captured and that
Israel
'has been shorn. Its seed no longer exists'. The first two cities have
probably already been captured by the invading
Philistines and are therefore targets for 'rescue' by a civilised king.
Israel, too, is the name given to a recently-arrived or formed group which
would need to be brought to heel (although the claim that its seed no longer
exists is mere boastfulness). This is the earliest definitive mention in
history of a people named 'Israel'.
c.1200 - 1198 BC
The
Israelites conquer Arad the
Canaanite before
going on, within the next couple of years, to defeat
Moab and subjugate it. It has to be
wondered whether the Israelites (and even Moabites) are aware of their shared
origins (at least according the the Bible). Have the Moabites been so dominated
by Amorites that they are no longer regarded as brothers? A number of minor city
states are also conquered by the Israelites, including those of the
Midianites and
various other Canaanite
cities.
c.1186 - 1168 BC
The
southern Israelite territories are conquered and occupied by the
Philistines.
The
Canaanite king of Shalem leads
the fragmented Jebusites
against Joshua, but they are defeated and conquered by the Israelites, with
their cities being incorporated into the Israelite state. Shalem becomes the
Israelite capital of Jerusalem, with the region being occupied by the tribes
of Benjamin and Judah, although control of it appears to be lost to the
Philistines,
perhaps in c.1150 BC.
c.1160s BC
According
to the Old Testament, the Israelites conquer a large number of cities in this
decade, mostly Canaanite,
and including Dor and
Gezer. Not all of these conquests can be backed up by archaeological
evidence, however. In fact, archaeology has shown very little evidence of
warfare in relation to most Canaanite cities around this time.
c.1150 BC
After
apparently being militarily dominant since their arrival half a century before,
the Israelites suffer a reversal in fortunes when at least some of them are subdued
by Moab. More of their territory, in the
south, is conquered by the
Philistines
who maintain vassal kings in Israel. Jerusalem is possibly freed entirely from
Israelite control at this stage, as King David is forced to re-conquer it in
975 BC.
Time of the Judges
The period of the Judges was described in the Old
Testament book of the same name. These were nominal rulers who were
possibly priests, and who held temporary authority over the twelve
Israelite tribes at various times. They were not actually called kings,
but nevertheless they did reign in a fashion, although they were rarely
accepted by all of the twelve tribes at the same time. They were usually
prominent during times of great need for the combined tribes, and were
usually charismatic leaders who led military campaigns as the newly-arrived
Israelites conquered
Canaanite
territory but were in turn dominated from around 1150 BC by the
Philistines.
Their 'reignal' lengths are as described in the Old Testament, but it is
impossible to calculate consecutive dates of reign for them without going
back to the exodus period, at which time the elders (notably Moses) were
still leading the tribes. With this in mind it seems much more likely that
they only led some of the tribes, not all of them, and their reigns often
overlapped, making any calculation of reignal dates impossible.
At the time, Canaan was nominally under the governance of
Egypt,
but it was preoccupied with repulsing incursions by the
Sea Peoples. The
Israelite conquest itself was a series of independent battles by the
separate tribes for their independent portions of land (although the book of
Joshua attempts to portray it as a unified conquest, something that is
generally considered to be a later ideological reconstruction of events).
Shagmar's position in the list is open to debate, and it is just as likely
that he was an oppressor of the Israelites as one of its judges.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Easton's
Bible Dictionary, Matthew George Easton (1897).)
fl c.1140 BC
Othniel
First of the judges.
40 years.
c.1140 BC
The
Israelites in the north are apparently under the rule of
Aram-Nahara'im
for eight years, until its king, Cushan-Rishataim, is defeated by Othniel.
Other areas of Israelite territory remain dominated by Eglon of
Moab for eighteen years following
the latter's military victory around 1150 BC.
fl c.1130 BC
Ehud
ben Gera
Of the tribe of Benjamin. 80 years.
c.1130 BC
Ehud
ben Gera assassinates the Moabite
King Eglon and defeats his army in battle. The result is a complete
about-face in fortunes as Moab is now conquered by the Israelites.
Shagmar
Led the Israelites against the
Philistines.
10 years.
Deborah
Guided her commander, Barak, to victory. 40 years.
c.1125 BC
Israel is
temporarily subdued by Jabin, 'king of
Canaan', who rules
his Canaanite coalition from the northern city of
Hazor, 'head of all those kingdoms'.
His associate, Sisera, is routed in battle by Joshua at Merom, and Hazor itself
is sacked and burned, possibly by the Israelites who then annexe it to their
state. However, the Israelites are conquered by the
Philistines
who maintain vassal kings in Israel. Jerusalem is possibly freed from Israelite
control at this stage, as King David is forced to re-conquer it in 975 BC.
Gideon
Defeated the
Midianites. Declined
kingship. 40 years.
Upon
the death of Gideon, his son, Abimelech, is proclaimed king. One of his
first acts is to murder his brothers, seventy in number, 'on one stone', at
Ophrah. Only one of them but the name of Jotham escapes. Abimelech is an
unprincipled, ambitious ruler, one who is often engaged in war with his own
subjects. When engaged in reducing the town of Thebez, which had revolted,
he is struck mortally on his head by a millstone that is thrown by the hand
of a woman from the wall above. Perceiving that the wound is mortal, he
desires his armour-bearer to thrust him through with his sword so that it
might not be said he has perished by the hand of a woman.
Abimelech
Son. Killed by his own
people at Thebez. 3 years.
Tola
Minor judge. 23 years.
Jair
Minor judge. 22 years.
Jephthah
Leader also during peacetime. 6 years.
c.1115 BC
The
Israelite tribe of Menasseh defeats Og the
Amorite and conquers the
Syrian city of
Bashan.
This victory, when combined with another one over Sihon the Amorite in
Ammon gives
them possession of the country east of the Jordan, from Arnon to the foot of
Hermon.
Ibzan
Minor judge. 7 years.
Elon
Minor judge. 10 years.
Abdon
Minor judge. 8 years.
fl c.1110 BC
Samson
Son of Manoah. Of
the tribe of Dan. Died freeing Israel. 20 years.
c.1110 BC
The first recorded event in Samson's life is his marriage
to a
Philistine woman of Timnath. An unblessed marriage, his wife is soon
taken from him and given 'to his companion'. In echoes of modern Levantine
politics, Samson takes revenge by burning the 'standing corn of the
Philistines'. They in turn 'burn his wife and her father'. Her death is
avenged 'terribly' by Samson. And so the cycle of violence rests for a
while. Following this, Samson serves as a judge for the Israelites for
twenty years before becoming infatuated with Delilah, and is betrayed by
her. He meets his death leading the Israelites in freeing themselves from
the control of the Philistines.
Eli
High priest &
judge. Neck broken in an accident. 40 years.
c.1097 - 1095 BC
A civil
war is fought in Israel.
c.1080 BC
Israel
is subdued by the
Midianites to the south (probably only on a very local and temporary
basis).
c.1050 BC
Shiloh is a Canaanite
town that has become the central sanctuary site of the Israelite confederacy
during the period of the judges. Following the Israelite conquest of Canaan,
the Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant had been installed in Shiloh, but
the Ark is now captured by the
Philistines during a battle at Ebenezer (site unknown), and Shiloh is
soon afterwards destroyed. Excavations at Khirbat Sayūn in modern Jordan
during 1920-1932 suggest that Shiloh remains a ruin for several centuries.
The Philistines decide to return the Ark after about seven months.
The Israelite Ark of the Covenant is the stuff of legend, but it
does figure noticeably in the early centuries of Israel's
history and, despite being captured by the Philistines around
1050 BC, it seems that even they couldn't hold onto it for long
Samuel
Last judge with possible authority over all the tribes. 30
years.
c.1040 - 1035 BC
Joel & Abiah
Sons of Samuel. Judges in Beersheba only.
Kingdom of Israel c.1035 - 928 BC
Around 1035 BC the comparatively weak
Israelites reputedly founded a
small kingdom under Saul which also included the captured city of
Hazor. This was partially in
response to attacks from Ammon,
which Saul realised could only be responded to with any effectiveness if
the Israelite tribes were united. Once it had been regained from the
Philistines,
another major threat, Saul made their capital the small walled city of
Jerusalem. Much of the kingdom's
territory may have included the inland mountains, rather than the coastal
strip which forms a key part of modern Israel.
According to Professor Mario Liverani, '...there are no extra-biblical sources
[specifically] mentioning the united kingdom of Judah and Israel, but maybe
this is due to the fact that such sources never existed. In the tenth century
BC Jerusalem was so small that only a palace and a temple possibly existed...
If we read the biblical text critically but positively we may suggest a kingdom
of limited dimensions, whose limits were Shechem and Beersheba'. In fact,
archaeological evidence to an extent supports this view, suggesting that
while Jerusalem later became a great ancient city (by the ninth century), in
King David's time the city was far less glorious than is described in the
Old Testament. David ruled over something more like a poor chiefdom, a town
of cattle herders and shepherds. The evidence is open to dispute, however,
with carbon dating providing enough doubt for some experts to claim that
David really did at least start building a great city, with Solomon
continuing that work.
With such a scarcity of data and only the Old Testament for support, it's
not surprising that the dates of rule for each king of Israel have to be
estimated. While the dates shown here are generally acceptable, they are
still open to some revision and will probably not fully agree with every
timeline. Solomon's death, for instance, could be dated to 930 BC rather
than 928 BC, as the Old Testament claims that
Egyptian Pharaoh Shesonk mounted a raid on the kingdom five years after
Solomon's death, and that raid can be pinned with some certainty to 925 BC.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean Bambrough
and Wayne McCleese, and from the BBC documentary series, Bible's Buried
Secrets, first broadcast 15 March 2011.)
c.1035 - 1005 BC
Saul
Kingdom founder.
Deposed.
Saul
defeats Nahash, king of Ammon,
after the citizens of the frontier city of Jabesh-Gilead call for assistance
against the Ammonite army. He also hands
Edom a defeat and possibly
makes it a vassal of Israel.
c.1005 - 1003 BC
Ishbaal /
Ish-bo'-sheth
Son. Opposed by David.
Murdered.
c.1005 - 1003 BC
Ishbaal
reigns over Israel for just two years and is opposed by David throughout. The
latter king is proclaimed by Judah (suggesting that the later division of Israel
into Samaria and
Judah is nothing of the kind - in
fact the kingdom may never be united in the first place or is little more than
a confederation of tribes at this stage). Civil war sees David victorious and
Ishbaal is murdered by his own captains. They are later punished by David.
c.1005 - 965 BC
David
Son of Jesse of
Bethlehem.
990s BC
The Israelites under David take the city state of
Dor and incorporate it into the
kingdom. He also commits his parents to protect the king of
Moab, Mizpeh, a possible relation
of his through his Moabite mother, Ruth (according to tradition). However,
this is the last time the two kingdoms appear to share friendly relations.
c.980 BC
Ammon is apparently conquered by
Israel, despite assistance being supplied by the northern state of
Aram Damascus.
However, some archaeological findings suggest that the vast empire claimed by the
Bible for David is impossible. With only small villages within the
'kingdom's' borders and a potential army of a few hundred men, David simply
does not have the manpower to create an empire, let alone maintain it. More
recent findings, especially of the fortress city of Kirbet Qeiyafa, to the west
of Jerusalem, suggest a measure of the opposite, that there may indeed have
been a dedicated military force to aid David in building a small regional
kingdom.
Kirbet Qeiyafa has lain virtually undisturbed for three
millennia and provides evidence of a fortress city in Davidian
Israel
975 BC
David
leads the Israelites to subdue the
Philistines,
regaining Jerusalem from a
Jebusite king and
making the city his capital. One of Israel's allies in David's reign is the
Syrian
city of Hamath, which remains a
close friend for centuries afterwards. David also permanently subdues
Edom, making it a dependency
of Israel. To achieve any of this, David has first to subdue Goliath, the giant
champion of the Philistines. Goliath is claimed as a resident or son of the
Philistine city of Gath, one of the five royal cities, and perhaps the
greatest of them at this time.
c.970? BC
David
conquers the city of
Zobah, although
one of its military officers escapes and founds an important kingdom based
at Aram Damascus.
This replaces the eclipsed Zobah as the main centre of
Aramaean power in the Levant.
c.966 BC
Work
starts on the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem. The Old Testament
in the Book of Kings suggests something of the floor plan by giving the
measurements of the outer shell and details of the insides. The floor plan
would seem to resemble that of other temples in
Canaan, built by
people who practice polytheism. The closest match is a temple at modern Ain
Dara in Syria
(near the ancient city of
Alep), even down to very similar dimensions and guarding cherubim. This
temple dates to about 1300 BC and remains in use until about 740 BC. Despite
the building of their own temple to one god, archaeological findings of pagan
figurines show that Israelites are far from entirely monotheistic at this
stage.
965 BC
Adonijah
Attempted to steal
the throne.
965 - 928 BC
Solomon
Son of David.
c.965? BC
Solomon meets the queen of Sheba (Saba)
and according to legend becomes the father of Menelik, founder of the
Ethiopian
empire.
Probably in the same decade, a ruler of the
Philistine city of Gath named Achish is mentioned in connection
with two servants of Shimei who flee to him. Shimei goes to Gath in pursuit
of them, in breach of Solomon's orders, and is subsequently put to death by
Solomon.
c.955 BC
The First Temple of Jerusalem is completed, apparently by craftsmen from
Sidon under King
Hiram of Tyre, and
houses the Ark of the Covenant. Solomon also enters into a matrimonial
alliance with Sidon.
c.930s BC
Solomon's elaborate building operations and lavish personal existence have
already led to forced labour, high taxes, and increasing unrest amongst the
populace. In the later years of his reign, his enemies increase, 'divinely
raised up to chasten him'. One of these is Rezon, the son of Eliada, a
former officer of Zobah who has assumed
control of Aram Damascus.
Because he fails to heed the demands of the people to rescind Solomon's
heavy tax and labour demands, the ten tribes of the north refuse to accept
Rehoboam at the confirmation ceremony at Shechem and civil war ensues.
Rehoboam is left with just the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in the south
as the kingdom divides into
Samaria (Israel)
and Judah.
However, there is a possibility that the two kingdoms are never united in
the first place. The Old Testament's attitude towards the northern kingdom,
and a sidelining of its major rulers and successes, suggests that a level
of antipathy always exists between the two regions. The story of David's
united kingdom may be propaganda, an attempt to back up later claims to a
single Israel and all the territory that this may encompass.
Kingdom of Judah 928 - 586 BC
Around 1035 BC the comparatively weak
Israelites reputedly founded a
small kingdom of Israel. The process
seems to have been due - at least in part - to attacks by Ammon.
The Israelites realised the only effective response was to unite the Israelite tribes. Once it had been regained from the
Philistines,
another major threat, the capital became the small walled city of
Jerusalem. The kingdom held a
largely united front until civil war divided it in two (according to the Old
Testament).
From 925 BC Jerusalem was the capital of the southern division of two of the
twelve Israelite tribes, these being the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. It kept
the conquered kingdom of Edom
as a dependency. The civil war which had divided Israel rumbled on with
occasional flare-ups over successive generations, and this served to weaken both states.
After the fall of the northern kingdom of Samaria
in 721 BC and the conquests by
Assyria, Judah became
the sole surviving Israelite
state, existing only in Jerusalem, the rest of its former lands now largely being
under Assyrian occupation. Its population was swelled by the pouring in of refugees
escaping the Assyrian rule of Samaria. Only then did Jerusalem grow to become a
great city.
Additionally, even the Old Testament is unable to completely hide the fact
that polytheism seemed to be prevalent throughout
Canaan, even
Hebrew Canaan. The early god El, who unmasked himself to Abraham as Yahweh,
may have had a consort called Asherah, and a court of lesser gods in the
typical format of Canaanite societies. Perhaps Jeroboam of Samaria was simply being
more true to the origins of his people while the
Babylonian period Judeans who wrote down
the books that make up the Old Testament had a completely different
viewpoint. All dating here is arguable to an extent. Various scholars have
proposed their own dating which can result in variances of four or five
years up or down from the dates that are shown here.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Wayne McCleese,
and from External Link:
Israel and the Aramaeans
(Quartz Hill School of Theology).)
928 - 911 BC
Rehoboam
Retained only the southern
part of the former united kingdom.
928 - 925 BC
The break-up
of Israel has allowed
Damas to rapidly grow
in power and at times even threaten the existence of its southern neighbour. It is
frequently called upon by Judah to help against
Samaria and probably
gains some of the latter's northern towns during this period. Also not specifically
mentioned in the Old Testament, Wayne McCleese believes that a treaty exists between
Tab-Rimmon of Damas and the kingdom of Judah (based on 1 Kings 15:19).
c.925 BC
Egyptian Pharaoh Shesonk mounts a full-scale invasion of
Samaria, but mainly ignores
Judah. Jerusalem is relatively untouched following a short siege by the invaders,
although some Temple treasures are looted.
Asa
and Ba'asa (Baasha), ruler of Ammon,
maintain a near-lifelong feud. When Ba'asa pushes
Samaria's frontier to within five
miles of Jerusalem, Asa, just like his father before him when under pressure, calls
on Damas for help. In
this case it is Ben-Hadad who responds to Asa's offer of payment if Damas will break
its treaty with Ammon.
871 - 847 BC
Jehoshaphat
Son. Joint rule for five
years.
853 BC
Ahab
of Samaria is a member
of an alliance of states which also includes
Ammon,
Arvad,
Byblos,
Damas,
Edom,
Egypt,
Hamath, and
Kedar. Together they fight
Shalmaneser III of
Assyria in a
battle which consists of the largest known number of combatants to date,
and is the first historical mention of the
Arabs from the southern deserts.
Despite claims to the contrary, the Assyrians are defeated, since they do
not press on to their nearest target, Hamath.
When the Neo-Assyrian empire threatened the various city states
of southern Syria and Canaan around 853 BC, they united to
protect their joint territory - successfully it seems, at least
for a time (click or tap on map to view full sized)
c.850 / c.847 BC
The
Philistines sack Jerusalem about 850 BC, and this would fit in well with
another event of the same year. The alliance of states of 853 BC breaks up when
Ahab of Samaria, assisted
by Jehoshaphat, wages war against
Damas at Ramoth Gilead.
Ahab meets his death there, and the defeat may well make Judah vulnerable to an
opportunistic attack by the Philistines.
Around three years later, Jehoshaphat, together with Joram of Samaria and the
king (or governor) of Edom,
form a coalition which attempts to retake
Moab by force, but despite some initial gains the attempt is unsuccessful.
Ahaziah
of Judah and Joram of Samaria
engage Hazael of Damas
in battle at Ramoth-Gilead (seemingly a common location for battles in this
period). Joram is wounded and retreats to Jezreel where Ahaziah rejoins him.
Both are killed there by Jehu, who then seizes the throne of Samaria.
842 - 836 BC
Athaliah
Queen. Mother of Ahaziah
& daughter of Omri of
Samaria.
c.840 BC
Jehu
puts an end to the house of Omri of
Samaria by massacring
the entire royal family and seizing the throne. The only known survivor is Omri's
daughter, Athaliah, who is queen in Judah. Soon after his reign begins, and despite
Old Testament claims to the contrary, Moab
defeats Samaria and Damas
takes all the Hebrew possessions east of the Jordan, ravaging Judah, and rendering
Samaria impotent. Later in his reign, Jehu is also represented on the Black Obelisk
of Shalmaneser III as submitting to
Assyria, the
only representation of an Israelite ruler in existence today.
836 - 798 BC
Joash
/ Jehoash
Son of Ahaziah of Judah.
During his reign, the Judah of Joash is comparatively weak.
Damas to the
north, commanded by the active and aggressive usurper, Hazael, is clearly
the dominant regional power. Joash has to pay him off at least once to get
him to leave Jerusalem alone.
798 - 781 BC
Amaziah
Son. Murdered.
781 - 740 BC
Uzziah
/ Azariah / Azarias
Son.
740 BC
Uzziah
is struck with leprosy in front of the Ark of the Covenant and dies soon
afterwards.
Pekah
of Samaria and Rezon II
of Damas form an
anti-Assyrian
coalition. They try to force Ahaz to join them but are stopped when Tiglath-Pileser
III marches an army into the region (partially thanks to payments of silver
and gold by Ahaz). Over the next two years he re-conquers all the rebellious
states, and takes Damas. Judah becomes an Assyrian vassal, but the king remains
on the throne.
721 BC
Sennacherib
of Assyria conquers
all of Israel and Judah except the
city of Jerusalem itself, to which he lays siege. As documented by Isaiah (who
wrote the Book of Isaiah chapters 1-39 himself at this time), Hezekiah addresses
the Ark of the Covenant in the Temple of Solomon and Sennacherib's forces are
decimated, whether by plague or the power of the Ark itself is unknown. With
much of the rest of the Israelite lands remaining occupied, the Jewish faith
and their god, Yahweh, survive only in this one small pocket which is now little
more than a city state.
Hezekiah
has dealings with the usurper king of
Babylonia,
Marduk-apla-iddina II (Merodach-Baladan), between these dates. In 701,
Hezekiah's refusal to pay tribute to
Assyria leads
to Sennacherib besieging Jerusalem until the wayward king capitulates.
687 - 642 BC
Manasseh
Son of Hezekiah.
Crowned at the age of twelve.
687 - 642 BC
The
first Jewish monarch to turn his back on the established faith, Manasseh
introduces pagan idols and worship, and persecutes the prophets, leading a
sustained campaign against the worship of Yahweh. The Old Testament (2 Kings
21:11-16) proclaims that Manasseh is the reason that Jerusalem and Judah
will be destroyed.
It seems possible that the Ark of the Covenant is withdrawn from Jerusalem by
650 BC by its Levite protectors. At the same time, Israelites are known to
be settling in
Egypt,
on the island of Elephantine. Manasseh is captured by the
Assyrians and
is treated terribly. He humbles himself and repents of his bad ways, is
forgiven and serves Yahweh for the rest of his life.
642 - 640 BC
Amon
Son.
Assassinated by royal household for his paganism.
Josiah
is aged eight when he succeeds to the throne. The Old Testament books, Deuteronomy
and I Kings, are compiled during his reign, which sees a return to established
religious practices - with some modernising - but the king is later killed
fighting
Egypt.
c.626 BC
Jeremiah composes at least part of his eponymous Biblical book at the start
of his prophetic ministry.
609 - 608 BC
Jehoahaz II
Third son of Josiah.
Ruled for 3 months.
608 BC
Necho of
Babylon deposes Jehoahaz
and imposes his successor on the kingdom in the form of Jehoiakim.
Son. Ruled 3 months.
Taken into captivity in
Babylon.
597 BC
For its continued support of
Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar invades and occupies Jerusalem (with the help of
Ammon), showing no hesitation
in stripping the city of its treasures. The Judeans are made vassals under
Babylonia, and 10,000 subjects are shipped to
Babylon,
including the ruling elite. Moab
apparently takes advantage of Judah's fall, joining in the plunder and
seizing some of its territory.
Jehoiachin retains his status in Babylon, at least as far as his own people
are concerned. He is the 'Prince of Judah' until 560 BC during the
Exile period, although one record of
him in Babylon states that he and his five sons are recipients of food
rations.
Zedekiah
rebels against Babylonian overlordship and Jerusalem is sacked by
Babylonia.
Zedekiah himself is captured and forced to watch the execution of his
children before his eyes are poked out. Much of the population is moved to
Babylon. Judah becomes a province of Babylon.
The First Temple is burnt to the ground after being pillaged. The
Israelite
kingdom has been destroyed and its line of kings ended, although Zedekiah
himself is taken to Babylon with his enslaved people.
Babylonian Governors of Judah 586 BC
The first governor, Gedaliah, appears to have served in
a high position within the Judahite royal court at least as early at 600 BC.
An inscription with his name has been found at Lachish, to the south-west of
Jerusalem. Other references to him suggest he supported a more conciliatory
approach to the Babylonians.
Gedaliah's story is told in 2 Kings 25:22-26 and Jeremiah 39:13-14; and
40:1-41:18. He is introduced as Gedaliah son of Ahikam and grandson of
Shaphan, a prominent scribe of the period and the head of a household that
supported both Josiah's religious reforms and the prophet Jeremiah.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean
Bambrough, from the BBC documentary series, Bible's Buried
Secrets, first broadcast 22 March 2011, from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from A Political History of the Achaemenid
Empire, M A Dandamaev, from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin,
1996), from
Ctesias' Persica in its Near Eastern Context, Matt Waters, and from External Link:
Encyclopaedia
Iranica.)
Gedaliah is killed by the remaining populace during a rebellion which is
instigated by Baalis of Ammon.
In retribution, even more of the population is shipped to Babylon. The
former king of Judah, Jehoiachin,
and his successor are termed princes of Judah while the tribes are held in
Exile in
Babylon.
The names of any subsequent Babylonian governors of Judah seem to be
unknown.
Persia's Cyrus
the Great enters
Babylon.
Cyrus adopts an enlightened attitude to his subjects and allows the Judeans
to return to Jerusalem, after officially handing over all their captured
idols and treasures. He also proclaims that they can rebuild their temple.
This policy is probably to encourage pro-Persian support in the Levant, a
region which bears distinctly
pro-
Egyptian sympathies.
Princes of Judah in Exile Incorporating Persian Satraps of Judah 597 - 539 BC
This was a period of occupation and overlordship for Judah, firstly from
Babylonia,
then Persia, the
Greek empire,
Ptolemaic Egypt, and the
Seleucid empire in
Syria, before
a Judean revolt gave the people a free state once again, albeit a small
one. Large numbers of
Israelites and
Judeans had been shipped off to
Assyria and
Babylon respectively following the fall of their kingdoms, leaving some
areas considerably reduced in terms of population. Now, with good land
going begging, the
Edomites and probably Moabites
too began migrating northwards to fill the vacuum. Their movement allowed
Arab tribes to venture northwards
from their desert territories, with the result that the
Kedarites and
Nabatu became players in
international politics during the seventh and sixth centuries BC.
The
shock for the Judeans in their defeat by Babylon went deeper than simply
losing their territory and freedom. Their god, Yahweh, had been defeated
by alien gods (although their own view was more a case of having been
defeated for not being true to Yahweh and also having failed to keep the
Sabbath). Perhaps a radical change was needed in the way Hebrews
worshipped. During this period, the books that made up the Old Testament
were assembled from writings which covered the previous five or six
centuries (including the story of Noah and the flood - see feature link).
However, the Hebrews who managed this were probably, and perhaps suddenly,
leaning towards a monotheistic message, and a rejection of the polytheism
that had gone before. The Old Testament is littered with examples of text
that seems to have been amended to cover up that previous polytheism, even
to the extent that Yahweh's consort is obscured. It seems more likely that
the true monotheism that Hebrews, Christians, and Muslims follow today was
only truly solidified by the second century BC, perhaps during the
Maccabaean period.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Sean
Bambrough, from the BBC documentary series, Bible's Buried Secrets,
first broadcast 22 March 2011, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook
(1983), from A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire, M A
Dandamaev, from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from
Ctesias' Persica in its Near Eastern Context, Matt Waters, and
from External Link:
Encyclopaedia Iranica.)
As the dethroned final independent king of
Judah, Jehoiachin retains his status in
Babylon,
at least as far as his own people are concerned. He is the 'Prince of Judah'
until 560 BC during the exile, although one record of
him in Babylon states that he and his five sons are recipients of food
rations. That must be early on, however. In 562 BC he is freed from
captivity by the new king, Amęl Marduk, and given a position in the royal
court.
Babylon was one of the biggest, most heavily-populated centres
of population in the ancient world of the early first millennium
(click or tap on image to view full sized)
587/586 BC
Zedekiah, the
Babylonian puppet king of Judah,
rebels against Babylonian overlordship and Jerusalem is sacked as a result.
Zedekiah himself is captured and forced to watch the execution of his children
before his eyes are poked out. Much of the population is moved to Babylon.
Judah becomes a province of Babylon. The
First Temple is burnt to the ground after being pillaged. The
Israelite kingdom has been destroyed and
its line of kings ended, although Zedekiah himself is taken to Babylon with his
enslaved people.
586 - 538 BC
Gedaliah, the
Babylonian governor of Judah, is
killed by the remaining populace during a rebellion which is instigated by
Baalis of Ammon. In retribution,
even more of the population is shipped to Babylon. The names of any subsequent
Babylonian governors of Judah seem to be unknown.
560 - after 537 BC
Sheshbazzar
Son. 'Prince of Judah'.
Persian governor
in 539 BC.
539 - 538 BC
Persia's Cyrus
the Great enters
Babylon.
Cyrus adopts an enlightened attitude to his subjects and allows the Judeans
to return to Jerusalem, after officially handing over all their captured
idols and treasures. He also proclaims that they can rebuild their temple.
This policy is probably to encourage pro-Persian support in the Levant, a
region which bears distinctly
pro-
Egyptian sympathies.
During the Persian period, the kingdom or state of
Moab disappears from the historical
record. The fate of the Moabites is not clear, but they may be migrating
northwards to fill Israelite lands that have been emptied by Nebuchadnezzar
of Babylonia. The Edomites
certainly are allowed to do just this, but they retain their identity while
the Moabites seem not to.
Construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem was begun on the
order of Persian King Cyrus the Great, with the work being under
the direct command of his satraps in Judah. Sheshbazzar and
Zorobabel
537 - 520 BC
Sheshbazzar is instructed by Cyrus the Great to begin construction of the
Second Temple in Jerusalem, sited over the ruins of the First Temple. He is
supplied with the store of gold and silver vessels that Nebuchadnezzar had
removed. In 520 BC, Zorobabel (Zerubbabel), a grandson of Jehoiachin (although
the precise connection is debated), is commanded to complete the now-stalled
work on the temple. His superior would be Tattenai of
Ebir-nāri, while
he is accompanied in his work by Joshua, first of the
High Priests of Judah.
The Second Temple is completed and the population at last know for certain
that the Ark of the Covenant has been lost when it is not available to be
re-sited inside the new temple's Holy of Holies. They already had doubts,
knowing as they did that it had not been taken into captivity with them.
Great Jews & High Priests of Judah (Incorporating Persian Satraps of Judah)
c.515 - 159 BC
From the time of Ezra and Nehemiah until the conquest
of the region by Alexander the Great the religious leaders and teachers of
the Jewish people were the Great Assembly and the Sopherim (the Great Jews
or Great Priests), who could trace their descent from the
Judges of pre-kingdom Israel. The great
priests disappeared under Hellenic control, and it was realised that a new
institution of a similar nature was required in order to maintain religious
unity and teach the law, so the Sanhedrin was formed (the High Priests).
However, under the
Greek empire and its
Seleucid descendant,
Judean culture and religion was under pressure to Hellenise. The chronology
down to the Greek conquest is disputed, but this version seems to be the most
reliable.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Persian
Empire, J M Cook (1983), from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities,
Flavius Josephus, and from External Link:
Encyclopćdia
Britannica.)
c.515 - 490 BC
Jeshua
/ Joshua
Son
of High Priest Jehozadak. Worked with
Zorobabel.
520 - c.517 BC
In 520 BC, Zorobabel (Zerubbabel), a grandson of the 'Prince
in Exile'
Jehoiachin, is commanded to complete the now-stalled
work on the Second Temple. His superior would be Tattenai of
Ebir-nāri,
while he is accompanied in his work by Joshua, first of the high priests of
Judah.
Xerxes is pictured with Esther, daughter of Mordecai, who
marries him to foil a plot by the chief adviser, Haman, to
organise a pogrom against the Jews (Xerxes in this Old
Testament story is known as Ahasuerus)
Ezra, a 'scribe', leads the second body of exiled Israelites back to
Jerusalem from
Babylon. He
also writes the Book of Ezra, and according to tradition collects and edits
the books of the Old Testament.
446 - 433 BC
Nehemiah / Nechemiah
Persian governor
of Judah. Author of the Book of Nemiah.
446 - 444 BC
Nehemiah, probably of the house of Judah, is appointed governor of Judea by
Artaxerxes I of Persia.
Despite hindrance from Ammon, he
commands that Jerusalem be rebuild and restored, and this process ends with
the restoration of the city's walls in 444 BC. After his period of
governorship is over, he returns to Persia, but has to revisit Judea two
years later to put right the abuses of power that have taken place in his
absence.
c.433 - 410 BC
Joiada
Son.
431 - 413? BC
Nehemiah / Nechemiah
Second governorship. Governed until his death?
Judea is annexed to the satrapy of Coele-Syria, and is
governed by the high priest under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria.
The internal government of the country became more and more a hierarchy.
c.410 - 371 BC
Jonathan /
Johanan
Son
of Eliashib.
410
- 400 BC
Correspondence between the Jews at Elephantine in
Egypt and Jerusalem
fully
ceases between 410-400 BC.
With
Persian influence having been removed from Upper Egypt in 410 BC, the Egyptians on
Elephantine take the opportunity of destroying the Jewish Temple, convinced
that the Jews have been
collaborating with the occupying power. The Jewish
community seems to move to western Abyssinia,
in Ethiopia, where
it
flourishes.
c.371 - 320 BC
Jaddua / Jaddus
Son.
Sometimes identified as Simeon Justus.
333 - 332 BC
In 334 BC Alexander of
Macedon launches his campaign into the
Persian empire
by crossing the Dardanelles. Much of Anatolia falls by 333 BC and Alexander
proceeds into Syria during 333-332 BC to receive the submission of
Ebir-nāri,
which also gains him
Harran, Judah, and
Phoenicia
(principally
Byblos and
Sidon,
with
Tyre holding out until it can be taken by force).
Athura,
Gaza, and
Egypt
also capitulate (not without a struggle in Gaza's case). With Judah having
been captured, the Great Assembly and Sopherim disappear.
c.320 - 280 BC
Onias I
Son
of Jaddua.
312 BC
Alexander's former
general, Ptolemy of
Egypt,
conquers Jerusalem and grants the people autonomy.
c.280 - 260 BC
Simon I the Just /
Simeon Justus
Son.
c.260 - 245 BC
Eleazar
Brother.
c.245 - 240 BC
Manasseh
Son
of Jaddua.
c.240 - 218 BC
Onias II
Son
of Simon.
218 - 185 BC
Simon II
Son
of Onias II.
198 BC
Antiochus III of the Seleucid
empire invades Coele Syria as part of the Fifth Syrian War and defeats
Ptolemaic General Scopas at Panion near the source of the River Jordan in 200
BC. This gains him control of Palestine and
Phoenicia,
and Antiochus grants special rights to the Jewish temple state. The
Sanhedrin is established around three years later, officiated over by the
High Priests.
185 - 175 BC
Onias III
Son. Murdered near Antioch
in 170 BC.
175 BC
As
well as founding many cities and colonies across the empire, Antiochus IV
also introduces a steady Hellenisation of the
Seleucid empire,
especially of its Oriental (eastern) peoples. Various eastern temple
organisation are riled by this, and none more so than that of Palestine.
They are loath to relinquish the relative freedoms that they have enjoyed
since the time of Antiochus III. At this time they are divided into two
parties, the orthodox Hasideans (the Pious Ones) and a reform party that
favours Hellenism. Onias III now comes into conflict with the Seleucid
authorities and is replaced by his brother and later murdered. The
Seleucids believe they have the authority to appoint high priests of their
choice, breaking the hereditary nature of the position.
175 - 172 BC
Jason
Brother.
172 BC
Seleucid ruler
Antiochus IV has been in favour of the reform party that is headed by Jason,
but now his rival Menelaus is appointed in his place. This is in return for
an even greater payment of tribute than that given by Jason for the post.
172 - 162 BC
Menelas /
Menelaus
Originally
called Onias, according to Josephus.
Onias IV
Son of Onias III.
Onias
IV flees to
Egypt
and founds a temple at Leontopolis (which survives until AD 66).
167 BC
While Antiochus IV has been campaigning in
Egypt,
former high priest Jason has conquered
Jerusalem, other than the citadel, and has murdered many adherents of
his rival, Menelaus. Upon Antiochus' return in 167 BC he storms Jerusalem
and enforces its Seleucid
Hellenisation. The city forfeits its privileges and is permanently garrisoned by
Syrian soldiers.
The Jews see this action as a defilement of Jerusalem. The
Maccabaean
revolt begins and a splinter state of Judea is formed, governed by rulers who
do not belong to the Israelite royal houses.
Hasmonaean (Jewish Independent / Maccabaean) Dynasty 165 - 37 BC
Antiochus IV had tried to introduce Hellenic culture into Jerusalem as
part of a steady process of Helenicising the entire empire, especially
its eastern provinces. In Jerusalem the Sanhedrin itself became heavily
Hellenised, but the populace in general distrusted such attempts to change
their way of life. This distrust degenerated into open revolt when all
worship of Yaweh was banned on pain of death, and an altar to Zeus
Olympios was erected in the Temple itself.
The resulting Maccabaean revolt split Judea away from
Seleucid
control. Judas Maccabeus led the anti-Greek Jews and the angered
Hasideans in a guerrilla war, and several times they were able to
defeat Seleucid generals who had been sent to stop them. Judas refused
a partial amnesty and instead conquered Judea, with the exception of
the Acra in Jerusalem. In December 164 BC he was able to tear down the
altar of Zeus and re-consecrate the Temple, and the Jews were able to
recreate their own independent state based around Jerusalem.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Jewish
War & Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from A History
of the Jews, Paul Johnson (1987), and from External Links:
Encyclopćdia
Britannica, and Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at
Livius.org,
and Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of World History (dead link).)
The
reign of young Antiochus V of the
Seleucid empire is
a busy one. Recognised by
Rome
in favour of his uncle, Demetrius, he and his regent, Lysias, then suffer
the revolt of Timarchus, satrap of
Media in 163 BC. They
win a victory in the war against Judas Maccabeus at Beth-Zechariah in 162
BC, but then Antiochus' advisor, Philip, revolts in Antioch. A peace treaty
is agreed with the Maccabaeans, giving them favourable terms because the
Seleucid troops are needed in Antioch and Media. Antiochus is killed by
his own uncle before he can use those troops.
Jerusalem of the Hasmonaean period was an expanding city with a
burgeoning population and a thriving spirit of independence that
was supported by the lack of Seleucid coordination and ability
to recapture the city
162 - 159 BC
Alcimus
High priest of Judah,
seemingly with
Seleucid backing.
Died.
160 BC
On 27 March, Judas Maccabeus defeats a
Seleucid force
under Nicanor at Adasa, killing the Greek general in the process. Is this when
Ammon is conquered and drawn
into the kingdom. In less than a year, Judus himself is killed at Elasa by
another Seleucid force under the command of Bacchides. Jonathan Apphus
succeeds his brother.
160 - 143 BC
Jonathan
Apphus
Brother. Killed.
152 BC
The
rebellion of Seleucid
pretender Alexander Balas really gets underway in 152 BC. He is supported by
Egypt
and
Rome,
both of whom are only too happy to see chaos and confusion within Seleucid
territory, as well as by
Cappadocia. Jonathan Apphus of Judea also supports the rebel, and in
return is recognised as high priest of Judah. This serves as official
recognition of the Hasmonaeans and unites their leadership with the
position of high priest. Judea subsequently enjoys several years of peace,
especially when Seleucid ruler Demetrius is defeated near Antioch.
146 - 145 BC
The
son of Demetrius, Demetrius II, begins a revolt against Alexander Balas,
ruler of the
Seleucid empire.
Demetrius' general, Apollonius, is defeated by Jonathan Apphus, but
Alexander's position grows increasingly tenuous. He attempts to flee at the
start of 145 BC but is killed by
Nabateans.
142 - 134 BC
Simon Thassi
Brother.
142 BC
Seleucid rival
claimant Antiochus VI has already been recognised in Antioch (in 145 BC),
and Demetrius has been forced to flee to Seleucia near
Babylon, although
he only makes it thanks to soldiers from Judea who save
his life. In 142 BC, despite the killing of Jonathan Apphus of Jerusalem,
the Maccabees remain uncontested there once Demetrius recognises his
successor and withdraws the Seleucid garrison for his war efforts. This, in
effect, is a de facto recognition of Jerusalem's independence.
134 BC
Antiochus VII is the last
Seleucid emperor
of the east. He invades Judea in 134 BC and besieges Jerusalem. John Hyrcanus
is made high priest, but Antiochus makes no other intervention into the
religious sphere of Jewish life. After the death of the
Arsacid King
Mithradates I in 132 BC, Antiochus goes on to launch a campaign to recover
lost Seleucid domains in the east.
134 - 104 BC
John Hyrcanus I
Son.
126 - 123 BC
Despite the apparent victory of
Seleucid pretender
Alexander II at Tyre and
Damascus, he is unable to conquer
Syria even with
the support of John Hyrcanus in Judea. Seleucus V has succeeded his father,
although 'only' as co-ruler with his mother, Cleopatra Thea. The war goes
on, mostly well to the north of Judea.
109 BC
The Seleucid civil
war continues through 111-109 BC, while Antiochus IX and his ally, Ptolemy IX
Soter of
Egypt,
support the Samarians (of the former northern Jewish kingdom of
Samaria)
against John Hyrcanus of Judea, until
Rome
intervenes on the side of the Jews and against Antiochus IX and the Samarians.
At the same time, Idumaea
is drawn into the Hasmonaean kingdom.
104 - 103 BC
Aristobulus I
Son.
103 - 76 BC
Alexander
Jannćus
Brother.
93 - 90 BC
A number of Nabataeans
are forcibly converted to Judaism by Alexander Jannćus (Jannaeus). Once
he has safely put down a local rebellion he invades and occupies the
Nabataean towns of Gilead and Moab. There he imposes tribute although the
amount is unknown. The Nabataean king, Obodas I, has prepared for such an
attack and is soon able to respond by ambushing Alexander's forces near
Gaulane. The Judean army is destroyed in 90 BC and Obodas is able to gain
control of the Hauran and Jebal Druze.
Seleucid ruler
Demetrius also involves himself against Alexander Jannćus, but he soon
has to break off to return to the Seleucid civil war.
76 - 67 BC
John Hyrcanus II
Son.
67 - 63 BC
Aristobulus II
Brother.
63 - 40 BC
John Hyrcanus II
Restored.
63 BC
Rome invades Palestine, making it a province.
Hyrcanus rules by Roman decree.
40 - 37 BC
Antigonus
Son of Aristobulus.
37 BC
The
Herodite Dynasty, originating from
Idumaea,
is set up to control the area as a puppet state. The line of high priests
continues, but is no longer in charge of Judea.
Herodite Dynasty of Judea 37 BC - AD 44?
Son of the Hasmonaean official, Antipater the
Idumaean, Herod was
set up as a puppet ruler by
Rome.
Despite being pro-Cassius during the civil war between the supporters
of Julius Caesar and his murderers, Rome felt that it was important to
retain Herod's services in order to keep the anti-Roman nobility suppressed.
Herod was able to appoint the governor of Idumaea as part of his duties.
During various periods of his reign and that of his descendants, Judea was
sometimes also given control of the client kingdom of
Batanaea, just beyond
the Golan Heights.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Dana Grohol,
from the BBC documentaries, The Lost Gospels and The Dead Sea
Scrolls, both first screened in 2006, from Cultural and Religious
Heritage of India: Christianity, Suresh K Sharma & Usha Sharma (Eds),
and from External Link:
Catholic
Online.)
Herod
begins the renovation of the Temple, and the expansion of the Temple
Mount.
32 - 31 BC
Supported by Cleopatra of
Egypt,
Herod launches an attack on the
Nabataeans. His
well-organised troops, which include a large mounted force, plunder the
kingdom and occupy Dium. The Nabataean forces amass near Canatha in Syria,
but are attacked and routed. With Cleopatra now troubled by Herod's success,
General Athenion of Egypt sends a force of Canathans to the aid of the
Nabataeans, and this enlarged army is able to crush Herod's army. It
flees to Ormiza but Herod returns the following year to once again overrun
the kingdom.
30? BC
An earthquake hits Judea, seemingly soon after the conflicts of 33-32 BC.
Herod offers the
Nabataeans a peaceful continuation of his domination of them but they
choose to rebel. They invade Judea, but Herod immediately crosses the River
Jordan to Philadelphia (modern Amman) and, once he has sighted the Nabataean
forces, he attacks their outer while they are holding off from battle. The
confused Nabataeans are defeated and retreat into a defensive camp. Herod
lays siege, with some defenders surrendering before the remainder are
refused surrender terms. The Nabataeans lose the battle and effectively
remain under Herod's domination.
c.11 - 6 BC
Jesus, the son of Mary and her husband, Joseph the carpenter (whatever his
role in the actual conception of the child), is viewed by some of his peers
in Judea as the messiah foretold in the Old Testament. The exact dates
relating to him are uncertain, but the year of his birth is traditionally
accepted as being 11 BC or 7 BC. However, the census of Quirnius is held in
6 BC, which is the event that forces Mary and Joseph to return home when the
former is heavily pregnant.
The birth most likely takes place around September, as there is mention of
sheep and shepherds being out overnight. In winter the sheep would have been
kept indoors overnight so the temperature is clearly too warm for this, and
the weather is still convenient for travel. The name of the newborn child is
probably more correctly pronounced as Joshua or Yeshua in the original Hebrew,
before being passed through Greek, Latin and English.
4 BC - AD 6
Herod
Archelaus
Son of Herod. Puppet
under Roman
Procurator's rule.
Pontius
Pilatus (Pilate) is appointed as the fifth
Roman
prefect or procurator of Judea. The 'Pilate Stone', a carved limestone block
found by archaeologists at the site of Caesarea Maritima in 1961, confirms
Pilate's existence outside of the New Testament. It is likely that Caesarea
Maritima serves as his main centre of operations
c.30 - 33
Generally accepted by historians to be a healer, Jesus starts to preaches
the restoration of God's kingdom (probably meaning a restoration of the
church organisation within Judea, He is soon viewed with suspicion by the
Jewish authorities, along with the occupying
Romans,
and is arrested, tried and executed by crucifixion about AD 33, the
operation being ordered by the Jewish government and overseen by the
Romans.
The teachings of Jesus (whatever his true nature) drew a large
following amongst the occupied peoples of Judea and inspired the
creation of a new church
c.33 - 42
Whether the plans of Jesus had included founding an entirely new church or
not, this is what happens, although its birth is clouded in obscurity.
Looking at the so-called lost gospels which are later discovered in modern
Egypt,
it seems that Jesus may have intended Mary Magdalene, a disciple (and more
controversially, perhaps even his wife - the Gnostic Gospel of Philip
describes her as Jesus' 'companion' - which has the same meaning), to head
his movement (either to restore the Judean church or to become the focal
point of his new church).
Mary is supported by Jesus' brothers, most notably James, but according to
the Gnostic writings of the second or third centuries, tensions have long
existed between Peter and the male disciples on one side, and Mary and
possible female disciples on the other side. Now that Jesus is not around to
keep the peace, a power struggle apparently ensues between them. Ultimately,
the group headed by Peter wins. Mary and James and their more inclusive
church are sidelined, and a male-dominated, hierarchical church emerges,
with Peter at its head. He is later acclaimed as the first official
Bishop of Rome.
At the same time, one of the best known legends regarding the beginnings of the
British Church
is the visit paid by Joseph of Arimathea following the death of Jesus. Joseph
is only mentioned in this role for the first time in the ninth century, in
the Life of Mary Magdalene which is attributed to Archbishop Rabanus
Maurus of Mainz (766-856). Earlier writers fail to say anything about it, so
its veracity is open to a very large degree of doubt.
According
to myth, legend, and later stories, Joseph travels west, presumably following
the ancient
Phoenician
trading routes to
Gaul.
He lands at Messalina (Marseille) where he delivers to safety Mary Magdalene
and her infant child, the offspring of Jesus (whose descendants, it is claimed,
marry into the
Merovingians
and feature in the Holy Blood and the Holy Grail and Da Vinci Code
controversy). According to William of Malmesbury in his Chronicle of the
English Kings, Joseph travels on to reach south-west
Britain
where later literature claims he founds Glastonbury Abbey.
c.30 - 50?
A
somewhat remarkable story which is usually ascribed to the reign of Gondophares
I of the
Indo-Parthian kingdom is a visit by St Thomas the Apostle. He would seem
to use established trade routes to reach
India,
although it would have to be north-western India for his interaction with
Gondophares. He is recruited as a carpenter to serve at the court of the
king who is named as 'Gudnaphar' in surviving texts.
Chapters 2 and 3 of The Acts of Thomas show him embarking on a
sea voyage to India, while Chapter 17 describes his time in India. He
establishes many converts to Christianity, including members of royal
families, passes into a neighbouring kingdom, suffers martyrdom there (at
the hands of an unidentified King Mazdai), and is buried there. His remains
are later transferred to Edessa in
Mesopotamia where they are venerated.
34? - 39
Herod Antipas
Son of Herod. Puppet.
39? - 44
Agrippa I
Grandson of Herod.
Puppet.
40 - 43
Apostle Peter leads
the first Christians
in Galilee in AD 40. By the following year, the expansion of Jerusalem continues
under Agrippa l. James leads the Jerusalem Christian community in AD 43.
Roman Judea AD 44 - 636
During the
Roman
period, Jewish communities around the empire grew greatly in terms of their
population figures.
Cyrenaica
alone (in modern eastern
Libya)
soon counted twenty-five percent of its total population as Jews.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward
Dawson, from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities, Flavius
Josephus, from the Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the
Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder (Gen Ed, 1986), and from External Link:
Listverse.)
66 - 73
The
First Jewish Uprising against
Rome
leads to the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple (AD 70). The Roman
general Titus crushes the revolt, and many Jews are taken as captives to
Rome. In AD 68, Josephus begins his History of the Jewish War. By
AD 73, the revolt reaches its bloody conclusion at the Masada fortress near
the Dead Sea, when it is finally captured by Rome after the defenders commit
mass suicide.
132 - 135
Simon bar Kochba
Leader of the Second Jewish Uprising.
132 - 135
The
Second Jewish Uprising is led by Simon bar Kochba against
Roman
rule. He captures Jerusalem and establishes a short-lived independent state.
Roman armies under Emperor Hadrian which include the former governor of
Britain,
Sextus Julius Severus, raze Jerusalem and the emperor builds the Roman
colony of Aelia Capitolina on the site. A pagan temple dedicated to Jupiter
is built on the site of the Jewish Temple Mount itself, and the Jews are
driven out of Jerusalem. By AD 136, although Rome forbid Jews to enter
Jerusalem, Christian pilgrims are permitted entrance.
The reasons for the uprising are unknown, but Roman treatment of the Jews
is generally suspected as being the main cause. Another reason may be the
establishment of the pagan temple and the colony of Aelia Capitolina. This
appears to be named after the Emperor Hadrian, whose full name is Publius
Aelius Hadrianus. Conversely, both these two reasons may be the results of
the revolt - punitive action taken by Hadrian after the event.
The missing half of the inscription to Hadrian was found
recycled into a floor around a cistern opening, north of the
Damascus gate in Jerusalem
The suspicion that construction of Aelia Capitolina is begun before the
revolt is supported by an archaeological discovery in 2014. Excavating north
of the Damascus
Gate, a large limestone fragment is found that commemorates Hadrian. The other
half of the fragment had already been found in the 1800s. In its original form,
the stone slab may be part of a gateway, but at some point it is recycled into
a floor around an opening for a cistern. It is dedicated to Hadrian in 129-130
by Legio X Fretensis and states 'To the Imperator Caesar Traianus Hadrianus
Augustus... high priest, invested with tribunician power for the fourteenth
time, consul for the third time, father of the country (dedicated by) the
Tenth Legion Fretensis Antoniniana'.
The capital
of the Islamic empire moves to
Damascus and an Arab aristocratic government is established there. Syria is
divided into four districts: Damascus, Homs, Jordan, and Palestine.
691
In the same year as Iraq is brought fully back under
Umayyad control,
the Dome of the Rock is completed in Jerusalem, on the site of the former
Jewish Second Temple (destroyed during the
Roman
siege of Jerusalem in AD 70). It survives to this day, making it the
oldest existing Islamic building in the world, and probably the holiest.
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem
751
As
his reward for the successful
Abbasid conquest of Fustat in
Egypt, Saleh ibn Ali ibn Abdullah
is made wali of Palestine.
Saleh ibn Ali ibn Abdullah, wali of
Egypt, is the uncle of
Abbasid
Caliph Abdullah as Saffah, but the caliph dies in 754. Saleh's brother,
Abdallah, launches a revolt in
Syria
against the new caliph, claiming that he himself is the rightful successor.
Saleh refuses to join his brother's revolt. Instead he enters Syria to help
suppress it, defeating Abdallah's governor of
Palestine, al-Hakam ibn Da'ban. Abdallah is also defeated and is forced
to submit to the new caliph.
877 - 878
Abbasid troops are sent against Ahmed ibn-Tuluh, governor of
Egypt,
because he has failed to send enough tribute to Baghdad. Defeating them,
the following year he invades and captures Palestine and
Syria.
905
The Tulunids in
Egypt
are weakened by this stage following years of mismanagement of the country.
Egypt is invaded and Wali Shayban retreats to Fustat where he surrenders on
10 January 905. The Tulunid dynasty of governors and semi-independent rulers
is ended and loyal and obedient
Abbasid
governors are installed.
909
Thanks to the murder of the
Aghlabid
ruler of Ifriqiyya, Abdullah, and Ziyadat's massacring of his brothers
and uncles, the Aghlabids have lost all prestige in the eyes of the people. Ifriqiyya
is conquered by the
Fatimids, who quickly also conquer
Morocco,
Syria,
Algeria, and Arabia. Ziyadat
escapes, but dies in Palestine while failing to secure support to recapture
his territory.
933 - 935
Abbasid control of
Egypt
proves to be short-lived when the country falls under the control of the
Mameluke
dynasty of Turkic governors who are allowed to rule in a semi-independent
manner. From 935, under the Turkic slave soldier, Muhammad ibn Tughj al
Ikhshid, Egypt also gains control of Palestine and
Syria.
fl 1028
Anushtegin ad-Dizbari
Also Anushtakin al-Duzbari. Governor of Palestine &
Syria.
1028 - 1029
The Arab rebellion in Syria is crushed by the newly-appointed
FatamidTurkic governor of Syria
and Palestine, Anushtegin ad-Dizbari, with victory coming in 1029. The success
gives the new governor control of Syria, which is not something that pleases
his Fatamid masters. However, his authority and leadership is welcomed by
the people of Damascus itself, who are probably relieved to find some stability
after several years of uncertainty.
1041
Anushtegin ad-Dizbari is exiled to
Aleppo where he dies, giving his
Fatamid
masters revenge for his success of 1029.
fl 1072
Badr al-Jamali
Former governor of
Syria. First
Fatamid
military vizier.
1072
Desperate to resolve the ongoing situation in Cairo, Caliph al Mustansir
recalls General Badr al-Jamali. He successfully puts down the various rebel
factions, clearing out much of the
Turkic presence at the same time.
However, the caliphate has been seriously weakened by the revolt. Badr
al-Jamali becomes the first military vizier of the caliphate (along much the
same lines as the magistri militum of the late
Western
Roman empire, and they dominate the caliphate in much the same way as
the late Roman emperors had been dominated). The military viziers become the
heads of state in
Egypt
in all but name, with the the caliph reduced to the role of figurehead.
The First Crusade. The
County of Edessa is created in 1098.
Jerusalem is captured in 1099.
1228 - 1229
The
Fifth Crusade hits the region and
Jerusalem
is ceded to the Christians at
Acre while the Ayyubids squabble amongst themselves. For allowing
Jerusalem to fall into Christian hands, al Kamil I (Nasir ad Din) of
Egypt is vilified by many Muslims,
but it brings peace with the Crusaders.
From the moment of
his accession in 1227, al Nasir II of
Damascus
has faced opposition from his uncle, al Kamil I. The latter attacks him,
taking Jerusalem (before handing it over to the Christians) and Nablus.
Appealing to another uncle, al Ashraf, the ruler of Harran, al Nasir is
betrayed when both uncles team up. Damascus is besieged between late 1228
and June 1229, when it falls. As agreed, al Kamil takes Palestine and al Ashraf
gains Damascus and the north, acknowledging his brother as overlord. Al Nasir
is compensated with the emirate of Kerak in the Transjordan.
1240
As Salih II Ismail of
Damascus
is quickly reconciled with an Nasir Dawud after the latter has fallen out
with Ayyub. Together they decide to curtail Ayyub's ambition to conquer
further Ayyubid territories. In July, Ismail reaches an agreement with
Jerusalem
so that the Crusaders will protect southern Palestine from Ayyub's possible
attacks. The price is high, though, as he is forced to cede all of the land
west of the Jordan (won by Saladin in 1187), including Gaza, Jerusalem, and
Nablus, along with his own fortresses at Hunin, Safad, and Tiberias. He is
denounced throughout the Arab world for his actions.
The
new elective kingship in
Poland governs a state which encourages relative liberalism within its
borders. The state has already ensured a stable period of religious tolerism
and social autonomy which has encouraged the settlement within the kingdom of
a sizable Jewish population. This increases along with the kingdom's borders,
especially during the
Poland-Lithuania
commonwealth period. Poland becomes the European centre of Jewish culture,
while
England and
Spain are expelling their own Jews (in 1290 and 1492 respectively).
1492
The Jews are expelled from
Spain. Looking for new places to settle, some Jewish communities return
to Palestine. During the course of the subsequent century they put down
roots in the major cities in the region including Jerusalem.
1518
Ottoman
Sultan Selim I is impressed with Djanbirdi al-Ghazali and his loyalty to his
former Mameluke masters until they bore
no true authority during the Ottoman invasion. The former viceroy of Hama is
made governor of the province of Damascus which includes a great deal of the
Levant between central Syria
and Palestine and Transjordan. His first act is to subdue the
Turkic nomads
in the region so that the pilgrim caravan can travel safely to
Mecca.
Second term of office. Deposed and executed by Musa Pasha.
1663 - 1679
Musa Pasha
Brother. Stood down his post.
1679 - 1690
Ahmad Pasha II
Son. Last of the Ridwans in Gaza.
1697
Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid leads a large group of about 1,500 Jews into
Jerusalem, swelling the existing population there.
1791
Imperial
Russia
begins operating an area known as the Pale of Settlement. Initially this is small,
but it increases greatly from 1793 and the Second Partition of the former
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. By the mid-nineteenth century it
incorporates modern
Belarus
(eastern
Poland
at the time), eastern
Latvia,
Lithuania,
the province of Bessarabia (modern
Moldova),
and western
Ukraine. Having
formerly been citizens of the defunct commonwealth, the Jewish population of the
'Pale' is restricted from moving eastwards into Russia proper.
Mütesarrifs of Jerusalem AD 1810 - 1917
The mütesarrifs were the lieutenant-governors of Jerusalem during the
Ottoman
empire period of rule in the region. Overall governance of modern Israel,
Lebanon, and
Syria was initially handled by the wali of
Damascus, with the mütesarrifs
acting as sub-commanders in various regions. Jerusalem's territory covered southern
and central Palestine and included the cities of Beersheba, Bethlehem, Gaza, Hebron,
and Jaffa.
The mütesarrif of Jerusalem was not generally resident in Jerusalem. They
preferred nearby Ramla for this, a city founded between 705-715 by the
Umayyad caliphs, probably Sulayman
(the city today is inside the borders of Israel). This is perhaps not
surprising, as Jerusalem (and the Holy Land in general) had declined to a
backward state. The land outside the city was largely deserted and poor,
with banditry a common problem. Plagues were an even more common problem, sometimes
taking a heavy toll in lives. Cities and towns other than Jerusalem and Gaza
dwindled, and entire villages in the largely rural economy were abandoned.
(Information by Peter Kessler.)
1810
Kanj Ahmad Agha
1814
Abdul Karim Agha
1820
Hakimoglu Mustafa Agha
1821
Sülayman Afand
1821
Ali Afand
1821
Muhammad Sa'd
Acting mütesarrif.
1824/25
Ismail Bey
1825/27
Uthman Agha
1826 - 1827
Abdul Ibrahim Agha
1827
Ismail Afand
1827
Safi Muhammad Agha
1827 - 1831
Abdullah Pasha
Governor of Gaza and Jaffa
(1818-1821).
1829
Mustafa Afand
Mütesarrif.
1829 - 1831
Abdul Ibrahim Agha
Mütesarrif.
1830 - 1834
Hüseyin III has attempted to placate the Europeans in their interest in
Algiers
by ensuring that the Jewish population enjoys religious freedom and some
hostages are released. It does him little lasting good, however.
France invades Algeria and conquers it in progressive stages between
1830-1834.
1831 - 1840
Husaum `Abd al-Hadi
Governor-general.
1831
Sheykh Said al Mustafa
Mütesarrif.
1831/32
Yahya Bey
Mütesarrif.
1832
Muhammad Sa'ad Agha
Mütesarrif. Ousted by an Arab revolt.
1832
Qasim al-Ahmad seizes Jerusalem after leading his forces from Nablus during
an Arab revolt in Palestine. Less than a month later, Jerusalem is captured
along with Damascus by Ibrahim
Pasha of Egypt
(between May and June) on behalf of Muhammad Ali Pasha. They are annexed to Egypt and
Jerusalem subsequently operates on an autonomous basis. The
Ottomans
retain only nominal suzerainty. The relative freedom in the city now allows
the first foreign consulates to be founded, and four Jewish synagogues are
given permission to be renovated soon afterwards (in 1836).
Despite being the favoured residence of the mütesarrifs, Ramla
was not especially well-developed in the nineteenth century
outside the residence itself
1832
Qasim al-Ahmad
Captured Jerusalem during the Arab revolt.
1833
Muhammad al-Qasim bin Qasim al-Ahmad
Son.
1833
Yusuf al Qasim bin Qasim al-Ahmad
Brother.
1834/35
Jabr Abu Ghosh
1836/37
Mustafa Agha al Sa'ad
1838
Muhammad Ali Agha al Dizdr
1838 - 1840
The position of governor of Damascus falls vacant again, and on 10 October 1840 the
Ottoman empire regains direct authority over the city
and its territory, including Jerusalem. Despite this, increasing numbers of
Jews begin to drift back to Jerusalem, and they become the subject of
international political interest and support.
1838 - 1839
Ahmad Agha al-Asal al Dizdr
1841 - 1842?
Mehmed Tayyar Pasha
1843? - 1843
Reshid Pasha
In office until Dec.
1843 - 1844?
Haider Pasha
1845?
As'ad Pasha
1845 - 1847
Mehmed Pasha Kibrizli
1847 - 1848?
Mustafa Zarif
1847 - 1849
Bahri Pasha
1849 - 1851
Adham Pasha
1850
The district of East Jerusalem outside the Old City walls is only able to
begin to appear after 1850 when the
Ottoman
authorities allow structures to be built within 850 metres of the walls.
Construction is not begun immediately, however, and probably takes more than
a decade to become appreciable.
1851 - 1853
Hafiz Ahmed Pasha
1853 - 1854
Rashid Pasha
1854
Yakub Pasha Osmanoglu
Between Mar-Oct.
1855 - 1857?
Kiamil Pasha
1857 - 1864
Surayya Pasha
1860
Jerusalem has become an intensely crowded city within its old walls. Sir
Moses Montefiore, an
Anglo-Italian
philanthropist in the Holy Land, builds an almshouse in what becomes the Mishkenot
Sha'ananim district, and settlement outside the walls begins. The migration
out of the Old City is slow at first, with many scared of bandit raids
against the undefended suburb. A gate built around it which is locked at
night assuages some of the fear, while payments smooth the way for the rest.
This view of the Damascus Gate in 1860 shows that Jerusalem was
still confined behind the Old City walls, afraid to develop
outside due to the high levels of banditry
1864
Mehmed Hurshid Pasha
1864 - 1867
Izzet Pasha
1867 - 1869
Nazif Pasha
1869 - 1871
Mehmed Kamil Pasha
1869
Two more suburbs outside the Old City are started. Mahane Israel comes
first, built by Jews from the Mahgreb in Africa. Nahalat is next, built by a
cooperative of Jewish families in the Old City. The fear of banditry has
been replaced by now with a spirit of building new and better neighbourhoods
in a rapidly expanding Jerusalem.
1871 - 1872
Ali Bey
1872 - 1873
Nazif Pasha
Second term of office.
1873 - 1874/75
Mehmed Kamil Pasha
Second term of office. Died 1879.
1874/75 - 1876
Ali Bey
Second term of office.
1876 - 1877
Faik Bey
1877 - 1889
Rauf Pasha
1881
The first modern-era wave of Jewish migrations back to the Holy Land begins
with an event known as the First Aliyah. The Jews are fleeing pogroms in
Eastern Europe, most notably in the territories of the
Russian
empire under Alexander III and his imposition of anti-liberalisation reforms.
For the past century Russia has been operating an area known as the Pale of
Settlement, largely territory to the west which has been acquired from the former
Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. Today this forms Russia's western border region, and from
1791-1793 it has incorporated modern
Belarus
(eastern
Poland
at the time), eastern
Latvia,
Lithuania,
the province of Bessarabia (modern
Moldova),
and western Ukraine.
The Jewish population of the 'Pale' are restricted from moving eastwards into Russia
proper and are now being discouraged from remaining in the western border regions of
the empire.
1890 - 1897
Ibrahim
Hakki Pasha
1897
The question of a Jewish homeland is gaining international recognition,
helped on by the founding of a political form of Zionism and the first
meeting of the World Zionist Congress in this year, held in Basel in
Switzerland.
The impression of the mütesarrifate of Jerusalem as an emerging country in
its own right begins to grow in the mind of educated Arabs in the region.
1897 - 1901
Tevfik Bey
1901 - 1902
Mehmed Çevad Pasha
1902 - 1904
Osman Kazim Bey
1903 - 1914
The
Second Aliyah to Palestine is triggered in 1903 by an anti-Jewish riot in the
city of Kishinev (modern Chişinău), the capital of the province of
Bessarabia (modern Moldova), part of the
Russian empire. Something like 40,000 Jews settle in Palestine, although
only half remain permanently. Many others, evicted from their settlements in
the 'Pale' head towards western
Poland
or
America (something that is dramatically highlighted, if with a touch of
artistic licence, in the film musical, Fiddler on the Roof, 1971.
which has its final scenes set in 1905).
Poland-Lithuania's long-standing Jewish population was gradually
forced to emigrate during the later Russian empire period, with
most either going west or returning to Palestine
1904 - 1906
Ahmed Reshid Pasha
1906 - 1908
Ali Ekrem Bey
1908 - 1909
Subhi Bey
1909 - 1910
Nazim Bey
1910 - 1911
Azmi Bey
1911 - 1912
Çevdet Bey
1912 - 1913
Tahir Hayreddin Bey
1913 - 1915
Ahmed Macid Pasha
1915
The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by Jamal Pasha, wali of
Damascus, is
intended to put an end to local opposition to the 1908
Ottoman programme of Turkicisation in the region. Instead it has the opposite effect, raising
tensions and nationalistic feeling against the Turks.
With the Ottoman empire fading in power and prestige, the time
was ripe for the Arab Revolt, led by the Hashemites and TE
Lawrence
1916 - 1917
Midhad Bey
1916 - 1917
Palestine, the ancient land of the
Philistines,
is taken by the
British
from the crumbling Ottomans, and
in 1917 the the British
Parliament's
'Balfour Declaration' gives backing for 'a national home for Jewish people'
in Palestine.
British Governors of Palestine AD 1917 - 1948
Palestine emerged from four hundred years of
Ottoman rule during the
First World War, when the Arab Uprising, led by Faysal, son of the sharif
of Mecca and
British
Army officer T E Lawrence combined with a British military thrust from
Arabia under General Allenby to dislodge the Ottoman forces. The British
numbers were swelled by five battalions of Jewish volunteers who formed
the Jewish Legion (which saw action in the Jordan Valley in 1918). In
1917, the British
Parliament's
'Balfour Declaration' - announced by Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour -
gave backing for 'a national home for Jewish people' in Palestine. More
recently, extremist opinion has decried what it sees as Britain's pro-Arab
stance of the time, while the Arabs themselves see it as 'a fateful promise
from those who do not own to those who do not deserve', according to
Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas in 2016.
Once the chaos of war had settled down, mandates were granted to Britain
and France,
the two main victors of the First World War. They were to administer the
captured territories in the
Near East,
until some form of independent control could be established. The situation
at the end of the war was very unstable, with a serious risk of the region
descending into factional fighting and further chaos, so the mandates
served a very real purpose despite their later controversy. The British
mandate covered modern
Jordan,
Israel, and Palestine, while the French
mandate covered Syria and
Lebanon. Eventually,
the modern nations of the Near East were established and Britain and
France were able to withdraw.
On Palestine's northern border, Faysal becomes ruler of
the United Kingdom of
Syria on 7 March 1920.
However, the San Remo conference of April gives the mandate for Syria to
France
and the French immediately move to end Faysal's Arabic government. Faysal
also refuses to recognise the legitimacy of the newly created sate of
Lebanon, which takes
a large slice of Greater Syria's coastal territory. Eventually, Faysal is
exiled.
The Nabi Musa festival of 1920 prompted riots in Palestine
between the majority Arabs and the minority, but rapidly
burgeoning, Jewish population
In Palestine itself, increasing Jewish migration and settlement into the
region is stirring concern amongst Arab groups. During the Muslim Nabi Musa
festival, speeches by Arab religious leaders lead to several attacks on Jews.
There is fighting on both sides (the Nabi Musa Riots, or Palestine Riots),
leading to nine deaths and dozens of injuries, and former members of the
Jewish Legion defend their communities. Jewish concern that the British
military are not taking the situation seriously enough leads them to create
their own 'shadow' administration and a security force called the Haganah.
Although it begins in December 1919, the Third Aliyah really picks up in
1920, and results in a fresh wave of 40,000 Jews entering Palestine. The
trigger for this migration is the October Revolution in
Russia,
although the fact that the
British
rather than the
Ottomans are now in control
of Palestine makes it a much more enticing prospect than previously. In 1922,
Britain
assumes official governance of Palestine under the terms of its League of
Nations mandate. The following year,
Transjordan is
separated from Palestine.
1924 - 1929
The Fourth Aliyah follows on from the Third, delivering approximately
100,000 Jews into Palestine, mostly from
Lithuania,
Poland
(up to half of them),
Rumania,
and Russia.
Jewish communities undergo rapid development, especially in Tel Aviv, but
economic crisis between 1926-1927 causes great hardship, forcing around
23,000 Jews to leave again.
1925 - 1928
Herbert Charles Onslow Plumer
Aug-Jul.
1928
Sir Harry Charles Luke
Acting high commissioner, Jul-Dec.
1928 - 1931
Sir John Robert Chancellor
Dec-Nov.
1929 - 1939
The Western Wall Uprising of 1929 results from a Judo-Arab dispute about
access to the Western Wall. Arabs kill 133 Jews,
British
police kill 110 Arabs, and a handful of Arabs are killed by Jews. The blame
for the violence is laid largely at the door of the Arabs, who are feeling
increasing social pressure due to the rapid increase of Jewish immigrants
into the region. As if to highlight this, the beginning of the Fifth Aliyah
follows immediately afterwards, triggered by the rise of Nazism in
Germany and the threat of war.
1931
Mark Aitchison Young
Acting high commissioner, Nov-Nov.
1931 - 1938
Sir Arthur Grenfell Wauchope
Nov-Mar.
1937
Sir William Denis Battershill
Acting high commissioner for Sir Arthur, Sep-Nov.
1937
On 7 July the
British
'Peel Commission' recommends partitioning Palestine into
separate Jewish and Arab states. Emir Abdullah of
Transjordan
supports this as it means the Arab section will be incorporated into his
territory. While the Jews accept the commission's findings reluctantly, the
other Arabs nations do not, and it is eventually dropped.
1938 - 1944
Sir Harold Alfred MacMichael
Mar-Aug.
1944 - 1945
John S Surtees Prendergast Vereker
Nov-Nov.
1945 - 1948
Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham
Nov-May. Final high commissioner.
1946
Following
the conclusion of the Second World War, in which
Jordan has
remained a staunch ally of
Britain,
the British mandate for Transjordan comes to an end. The emirate's
independence is announced on 25 May, as the 'Hashemite Kingdom of
Transjordan' on Palestine's eastern border.
1948
The
British
mandate in Palestine comes to an end on 14 May. Before withdrawal of
the remaining British forces can even start, the declaration of the state
of Israel takes place on the same
day.
Modern Israel & Palestine AD 1948 - Present Day
Israel and Palestine are irrevocably linked in terms of modern history, as
the former was carved out of a large proportion of the latter in 1948. The
modern state of Israel is situated on the eastern coast of the
Mediterranean, and is neighboured by
Lebanon to the north,
Syria to the north-east,
Jordan to the east
while also encompassing the West Bank on three sides (the core of any future
Palestinian state),
Egypt
to the south, and the Palestinian Gaza Strip to the south-west, along the
Mediterranean coastline. The West Bank and Gaza Strip are all that remains
of Palestine.
With general support from
Britain
and the USA,
on 29 November 1947 the United Nations adopted a resolution to partition
Palestine into two states, one Jewish
and one Arab. British troops staunchly maintained their peacekeeping role
until 1948, despite extreme provocation from militant Jewish groups who were
intent on hurrying things along. As soon as the British ended their mandate
duties on 14 May 1948, on the very same day leading Jewish figure David
Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of a Jewish state.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Allan Rousso.)
1948
David Ben-Gurion
First of the three chairmen of the Provisional State
Council.
1948 - 1949
Chaim Weizmann
Chairman May-Feb, but arrived in Israel on 20 Sep 1948.
1948
Yosef Sprinzak
Acting chairman for Weizmann until his arrival.
1948 - 1949
David Ben-Gurion makes his proclamation of the creation of the state of
Israel on 14 May 1948, the last day of the
British
mandate. British troops are already pulling out, aware that the region is
about to erupt into violence. On the following day the neighbouring Arab
states of
Egypt,
Iraq,
Jordan,
Lebanon, and
Syria attack Israel,
prompting the start of the Arab-Israeli War.
Saudi Arabia sends its
own military contingent to support the Egyptians. The war lasts for a year
before a ceasefire is agreed. The Green Line is established - temporary
borders which can be generally agreed by all sides. Egypt gains the Gaza
Strip while Jordan controls East Jerusalem and the West Bank region, but an
estimated 700,000 Palestinians have been expelled or have fled their
homeland, mostly to enter southern Lebanon or Jordan.
David Ben-Gurion (right), Israel's first chairman of the
Provisional State Council in 1948 and its first prime minister
chats to US President Harry Truman (left) and Abba Eban
1948 - 1949
On 17 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion becomes the state of Israel's first prime
minister. In the following year, on 17 February 1949, Chaim Weizmann is
elected as the state's first president. Israel proclaims Jerusalem as its
capital on 13 December 1949 (which is put into force on 23 January 1950),
but most foreign embassies remain in Tel Aviv.
1956 - 1957
Israel occupies the Sinai peninsula as part of its efforts against
Egypt
in the Suez Crisis. While its objectives are achieved as part of an agreement
with
France
and
Britain,
Israel is pressured into withdrawing by the United Nations and even more
especially by the USA,
which fails to support any of its allies in this affair. UN peacekeepers are
positioned in the Sinai to act as a buffer between Israel and Egypt.
1964
Displaced Arab Palestinians create various resistance groups, the most
important of which is the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO), which
is committed to restoring the former
Palestine. Its most famous chairman is Yasser Arafat (1969-2004), who is
succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas.
1967
Amid
ever-increasing tensions and acrimonious relations with Israel,
Egypt
expels the UN peacekeepers from the Sinai and announces a partial blockade
of Israel's access to the Red Sea. Expecting further military action,
several Arab states begin to mobilise their troops. Israel sees this as
reason enough to launch a pre-emptive attack against Egypt,
Iraq,
Jordan, and
Syria, triggering the
Six Day War. Jordan loses the West Bank and East Jerusalem, a third
of the kingdom, while Israel also gains the Golan Heights and the ancient region
of Bashan from Syria, and the Gaza
Strip from Egypt, and also temporarily occupies the Sinai peninsula for a
second time. However, the state suffers heavy losses during the short
campaign, and public anger forces the prime minister to resign.
1973 - 1975
The
Yom Kippur War (alternatively known as the Arab-Israeli War of
1973) sees the combined forces of
Egypt
and Syria simultaneously
attack Israel during its highest holiday.
Jordan does not
actively participate in the conflict as it is still licking the wounds
suffered in 1967. The Syrian army is held and repulsed by the Israelis
while the Egyptian armies take longer to pin back. The war ends in an
imposed ceasefire, supported by the
USA
(backers of the Israelis) and Soviet
Russia
(supporting the Arab forces) as tension rises between the two superpowers.
The war results in the Oil Crisis of 1973-1975. This grips the
industrialised world when the Arab oil producers, including
Saudi Arabia, put
pressure on the USA to withdraw its support of Israel by withholding oil
supplies. The attempt eventually fails.
1976
The
'Raid on Entebbe' takes place on 1July 1976 when Israeli commandos daringly
rescue 102 hostages who are being held by PLO guerrillas at Uganda's Entebbe
International Airport.
1980
The
Israeli parliament passes an act entitled The Basic Law: Jerusalem, the
Capital of Israel, otherwise known as the Jerusalem Law. It seems to
suggest that Israelis can settle the occupied West Bank at will, and some
political commentators certainly take it that way.
1993
Under
Yasser Arafat, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation recognises Israel's
right to exist in peace and rejects terrorism, in return for which Israel
officially recognises the PLO as the official representative of the
Palestinians still in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Displaced Palestinians
have already recognised Israel's existence in 1988.
The famous handshake between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak
Rabin (left) and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat (right) in 1993,
overseen by US President Bill Clinton, seemed to presage a new
beginning in Palestine, but Rabin's assassination in 1995 soured
matters
1996
Two
years after for formation of the Palestinian Authority, the
semi-autonomous state of Palestine is set up by a joint
Israeli/Palestinian/US
deal.
1999
Persecution of the Falasha in
Ethiopia has steadily increased, so Israel begins covert
airlifts of Falasha populations, taking them back to their homeland.
Despite attempts by the Ethiopian government to put a halt to this, the
airlift is completed by 1999 with all of the Falashas being removed to
Israel.
2006
With Lebanon more stable
than at any time in a generation, Israel launches a military attack on 12 July,
which lasts for a month and seriously damages the country. The Second Lebanon
War is caused primarily by Palestinian militants firing rockets at Israeli
targets from inside Lebanon, but the war is a military and political disaster
for Israel.
2008
Towards the end of the year, Israel enters into the Gaza War after a
ceasefire between it and the militant Palestinian group Hamas collapses. The
fighting last for three weeks and leaves the Gaza Strip devastated. Israel
announces a unilateral ceasefire, while Hamas announces a ceasefire of its
own, opening the border crossings and withdrawing.