Babylonian Empire (Old Babylonian Period) / Dynasty I c.1792 - 1595 BC
The small Amorite
kingdom which was centred on the city of Babylon was probably founded
about a century after the collapse of
Sumer in circa 2004
BC. Lying in the region of
Akkad, it was known as Babil by the Sumerians and Bab-ilim by the Akkadians,
and had existed as little more than a
village since at least 2700 BC.
In circa 1897 BC, an Amorite prince called Sumu-Abum took advantage of the
period of anarchy in
Mesopotamia following the collapse of
Ur, and settled in Babil. So as not to draw attention to himself, he continued the worship of a small local
god; a secondary divinity of the family of Enki named Marduk (or Amar UTU),
the servant of the protective god Shamash, son of
Sippar. Marduk was soon
going to replace the great god Enlil, and become the god of power, war, sex
and domination, ideal for a city that, within little over a century, would
dominate all of Mesopotamia.
Babylon played its own part in the flowering of knowledge in the eighteenth
and seventeenth centuries BC. The Code of Hammurabi was one of the most
important documents in Babylon's history. It was a series of laws
which emphasised the pursuit of justice, especially in relation to business
transactions, and it set the form for later law codes.
All dates for this period are approximate until the eighth century BC. This
list follows the (until recently) most generally accepted middle chronology for dating
rulers, although there are three other competing models. The newly in-favour
short chronology dates the Old Babylonians to sixty-four years later than is
shown here.
(Additional information by Sean Bambrough, and from the Book of Jubilees
(otherwise known as the Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), by unknown
ancient Jewish religious authors).)
Cush?
Legendary great-grandson of Noah.
fl c.1900 BC
Nimrod?
/ Nebrod?
Son. Possible founder of
Babylon.
The Biblical Nimrod is credited in Genesis as having a kingdom which
includes Babel (Babylon), and
Erech, and
Accad (Akkad), and
Calneh (identity uncertain), in the land of Shinar
(Sumer). The Book
of Jubilees mentions the name in its Greek form, Nebrod, as being
the father of Azurad, the wife of Eber and mother of Peleg. This
account would therefore make him an ancestor of the
Israelite leader, Terah,
who, six generations later, departs from
Ur around c.1752 BC.
As Terah can be dated approximately, so too can Nimrod.
Nimrod's imperial ventures (and name) as described in Genesis may be based
on the conquests of the
Assyrian
king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1207 BC). It is Nimrod who is claimed as the
would-be builder of a great tower in Babylon, the 'Tower of Babel'. The
story is used to explain the existence of many different and sometimes
non-mutually-comprehensible languages in the ancient world.
Although records are sketchy and imprecise, the
Amorites of Babylon seem to
emerge approximately a century after the collapse of
Sumer when Sumuabum frees
the city from the domination of nearby
Kazallu. The first five
rulers of Babylon (sometimes called
Akkad, which is the
region in which it is located), ensure its survival, but
at first they acquire little territory outside that which they already possess -
a few towns in the surrounding land.
The first Babylonian king starts out as a minor Amorite leader who seizes
the town from Kazallu and declares its independence. He begins his reign
with the construction of a great city wall, which is still unfinished at his
death, after he is driven into exile in
Der by Manana of
Kish.
Babylon began life as a modest town which had been seized from
Kazallu, but was quickly fortified by the building of a city
wall in the nineteenth century BC
Eshnunna extends its
territory considerably into northern Babylonia under the reign of Naram-Sin.
Between 1819-1812 BC, the king of
Ekallatum is forced to
take refuge in Babylon after Naram-Sin conquers his city.
By
the time of Hammurabi's accession to the throne, the kings of Babylon had
begun to enlarge the state's borders by conquering the
Amorite
cities of Dilbat, Borsippa,
Kish, and
Sippar. If it didn't
already also control Kazallu from c.1861 BC, it certainly does so by this
time.
c.1792 - 1750 BC
Hammurabi
Son. Established the
empire.
c.1787 BC
Increasing the state's size and strength considerably,
Hammurabi attacks and defeats the Amorite city state of
Isin.
A major invasion by a coalition army of
Elamites,
Assyrians,
Gutians and
Eshnunnians is
defeated and crushed, and Hammurabi retaliates against Elam.
c.1763 BC
Hammurabi attacks and defeats the Amorite city state of
Larsa for its failure to provide
any real assistance in the allied effort to beat back the growing threat of
the powerful
Elamites. The
victory gives him control of the entire lower
Mesopotamian plain, which
includes Nippur,
Ur,
Uruk, and
Isin. The Elamites become vassals of
Babylonia, as does
Ekallatum.
c.1762 BC
The
Babylonians
capture the only remaining political power to oppose them when they take
Eshnunna, inheriting
well-established trade routes and economic stability. Northern
Mesopotamia
is occupied, ending the independence of small city states such as
Andarig,
Karana,
Qattara, and
Razama.
c.1761 BC
Mari, which had
previously been a
minor ally against the kingdom of Upper
Mesopotamia, is finally defeated. The removal of this last opposition wins Hammurabi control of virtually all
of former Sumerian Mesopotamia.
During this period, and perhaps due to this dominance, the city of
Kisurra
declines. Hammurabi also maintains important trade relations with the
Canaanite city of Hazor.
c.1752 BC
Two
Semitic Israelite leaders,
Terah and Abraham, lead their tribe of people out of
Ur towards
Canaan,
following the curve of the Fertile Crescent.
Research by some modern
scholars now think this date is too late and the location is too far south.
Cities such as Urkesh or
Akkadia or
Mosul (now Urfa) have
been suggested as the location of the Semitic exodus. The book of Genesis says
Aram-Naharaim
(an Aramaic name), while
classical sources suggest
Assyria. Currently the period most favoured is that of third dynasty
Ur, or perhaps
early Isin or
Larsa.
Lagash is
another possibility, towards the end of the second dynasty.
c.1750 - 1712 BC
Samsu-Iluna
Son.
c.1741
- 1736 BC
Many
city states have been revolting against
Babylonian rule since the death of Hammurabi, and many free themselves from the empire, despite hard fighting
by Samsu-Illuna. Terqa is attacked, and
Apum is sacked
(1726 BC), but Rim-Sin II of Larsa
now revolts
against Babylon's rule, aided by Anni of
Eshnunna.
c.1732 BC
The
Kassite peoples have been migrating into
Mesopotamia, mostly being used
as farm workers by Babylon. Akkadians claiming descent from
Isin now set up their own
territory in southern Mesopotamia's Sealand region,
removing it from the control of the Amorites to their north. Two years
later, in 1730 BC (or 1715 BC), Sealand defeats an invading army of Kassites which then
sets up a kingdom in the remnants of
Mari.
c.1728/27 BC
Samsu-Illuna
sacks Apum, destroying the thriving city.
c.1722 BC
Samsu-Iluna defeats two otherwise unknown and hostile kings, Iadikhabum and
Muti-khurshana, both of whom bear western names.
The
Babylonian empire has been steadily declining following the arrival of the
Hittites
in the region, and due to over-farming of the fields, leading to increased
salinisation and failing crops. The culture of the Hittites
emerges, as does that of the Hurrian
empire of
Mitanni.
In c.1595 BC the Hittite ruler Mursili I leads his army down the Euphrates
and sacks Babylon. The power vacuum allows the Kassites
to take over control of Babylonia.
Sealand Kings of Babylonia (ŠEŠ-KU) / Dynasty II c.1732 - 1460 BC
The second dynasty of Babylonian rulers did not
actually rule in Babylon itself, but instead held former
Sumer's
southern area, a region known by the Babylonians as Sealand, which was
gradually expanding southwards due to the silting up of the mouths of the
Tigris and Euphrates. Ruled by these
Akkadian
people, it may have stretched as far as the Persian Gulf and the border of
Elam, across Arabia, to
the Red Sea.
Records regarding Sealand are extremely sparse, with no
dates being known and even the lengths of rule being uncertain for some
kings. Dates here are calculated against those lengths of rule and external
events. The names are regarded as fanciful by some scholars - a vain attempt
to lead a Sumerian revival.
c.1732 - 1700 BC
Iluma-Ilum / Iliman
Established the dynasty.
c.1732 BC
Iluma-Ilum claims (falsely, it seems) to be a descendent of Damiq-Ilishu, the last ruler of
Isin. He claims the
independence of Sumer from
the Babylonian empire and
ultimately gains the freedom of Sumer south of
Nippur, founding the
Dynasty of the Sealand. He also frees
Kish from
Elamite control.
c.1730/15 BC
An
invading Kassite army is crushed by
Iluma-Ilum and retreats north to
set up a kingdom in the remnants of
Mari.
c.1715 BC
Abi-eshuh of Babylon attempts to defeat Iluma-Ilum but he flees to the
swamps and continues to rule.
Ea-gamil is overthrown by Ulamburiash. Sealand falls to the Kassites, and is
absorbed into Babylonia (although the evidence for this is much later and
very vague).
Kassite Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty III c.1595 - 1157 BC
The Kassites were another non-Semitic,
non-Indo-European
mountain people just like the
Amorites,
and their language matches nothing else known today. They invaded
Babylonia in the eighteenth century BC and although initially
defeated, they retired to
Mari from
where they eventually took over Babylonia, ruling over it and the
Amorite peoples.
In fact, the Kassites had the longest period of rule in Babylonia.
Thanks to the relative absence of information, they were long thought
to have achieved little in the way of cultural development. However,
it now appears that the kingdom made great strides in cementing the
cultural unification of southern
Mesopotamia
- which in their time truly became 'Babylonia', instead of just
another Mesopotamian city state with extensive possessions - and
those possessions stretched all the way southwards to
Bahrain.
Egypt's
Amarna archive holds Babylonian diplomatic correspondence, which
gives us much more information about Babylonian kings than Babylonian
records themselves.
Known by their neighbours as the 'kings of the land of Karduniash'
(possibly the Kassite name for Babylonia), the Kassites themselves
achieved political power but did not have a cultural impact on the
region. In some
Assyrian
sources, the ruler was termed 'king of the Kassites', reflecting
the dual nature of Kassite rule; holding political power but
sufficiently distinct from the rest of the population to be
regarded as a separate group.
c.1730 BC
Gandash
Kassite leader when they arrived in Babylonia.
c.1715 BC
The
invading Kassite army under Gandash is crushed by Iluma-Ilum of the
Sealand Dynasty. However, Gandash does
successfully conquer
Mari, and the Kassite kings reside there.
c.1595 BC
The
economically weakened Amorite
Babylonian empire is sacked
by the
Hittites,
and is left leaderless, allowing the Kassites
to move south from Mari
and take over (although the exact date at which this happens is unknown). A
dark age period follows and lasts
approximately two centuries. At around the same time it seems that the Kassites devastate
Elam.
Sealand falls to the Kassites, and is
absorbed into Babylonia.
Agum III
Kadashman-Harbe I
Karaindash
? -
1391 BC
Kurigalzu I
Died 1377.
Kurigalzu I rebuilds the temple at
Ur, and constructs a
new capital city, named Dur-Kurigalzu, 'fortress of Kurigalzu', in the far
north of Babylonia (modern Agar Quf).
In the
Egyptian Armana letters, Burnaburiash claims supremacy over the
Assyrians.
Whether this had ever been a fact, it is certainly not a realistic claim by
this point. Burnaburiash even marries a daughter of the Assyrian king, Assur-Uballit I,
as his main wife. A comprehensive archive is kept at
Nippur from this point.
The Kassite king is happy to marry a daughter of the powerful
Assyrian
king, Ashur-Uballit I, but the marriage leads to the Kassite faction at
court murdering the Babylonian king and placing Nazibugash, a pretender, on
the throne. Assur-Uballit promptly marches into Babylonia to avenge his
son-in-law. He raises Kurigalzu, a Kassite of the royal house, to the
throne.
Taken in chains to
Assyria.
The Nippur archive is
ended.
1235
- 1227 BC
The
Kassites are conquered
by
Assyria
and direct rule by Assyria lasts for eight years.
Kassite subject states in
Canaan become vulnerable to later attacks by the
Israelites.
c.1230 BC
The Kassites are defeated in battle by
Elam. In two
successive Elamite campaigns,
Nippur is taken and Isin
is attacked.
The
overthrow of the Kassites in Babylon is achieved by the
Elamites.
Babylon itself falls in 1157. The Elamites control Babylonia for three years in a short-lived
empire.
1158
- 1155 BC
Kutir-Nahhunte
Son of Shutruk-Nahhunte of
Elam and his
successor there.
Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty IV (Isin Dynasty
II) 1156 - 1025 BC
The Akkadian city state of
Isin had been conquered by
Babylonia (or Karduniash, as it was known by the Kassites) in around 1787 and 1763 BC. Following invasions by the
Elamites, the Babylonians
rallied around the Isin nobility, which reclaimed the throne from central
Babylonia and strengthened
it. The country itself slid into a general decline, with urbanism sharply
down - the number of true urban centres perhaps only included Babylon, Isin,
and Ur. The whole region, from the
Hittites
in Anatolia, to
Egypt,
Syria and the Levant, and
Assyria, was
at this time in the grip of a dark age resulting from the general
instability of the start of the century, and a new people, the
Aramaeans,
were migrating into the surrounding countryside, exacerbating the situation.
A major regional drought made the situation even worse.
1156
- 1146 BC
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu
1146
- 1132 BC
Itti-Marduk-balatu
c.1138 BC
After
years of raiding and plundering the country at will, the
Elamites
are finally expelled from Babylonia.
1132
- 1126 BC
Ninurta-nadin-shumi
1126
- 1103 BC
Nebuchadnezzar / Nebuchadrezzar I
c.1120 BC
Nebuchadnezzar puts an end to
Elamite
prosperity by sacking the capital and kingdom. The kingdom
falls and becomes part of Babylonia's territories.
1103
- 1100 BC
Enlil-nadin-apli
1100
- 1082 BC
Marduk-nadin-ahhe
1082
- 1069 BC
Marduk-shapik-zeri
1069
- 1046 BC
Adad-apla-iddina
1046
BC
Marduk-ahhe-eriba
(Not in the Georges Roux list.)
1046
- 1033 BC
Marduk-zer-X
1033
- 1025 BC
Nabu-shum-libur
Kassite Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty V (Sealand Dynasty
II) 1024 - 1004 BC
A second dynasty, this time from the extreme south, managed to take control
of Babylonia, although this one was made up of Kassites.
Still in the midst of the dark age period, scribal
activity was at a very low point throughout
Mesopotamia. Bureaucracy had
virtually disappeared, as had court correspondence, and indeed the entire
palace system itself in many places. It survived in
Egypt, Babylonia, and
Assyria, but for that very reason, while the rest of the world was producing
new advances to cope with a new age, these three empires became
technologically backwards.
1024
- 1008 BC
Simbar-shipak
1008 BC
Ea-mukin-shumi
(Not in the Georges Roux list.)
1008
- 1004 BC
Kashu-nadi-ahhe
(Not in the Georges Roux list.)
Kassite Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty VI (Bazi Dynasty) 1004 - 985 BC
As semi-nomadic groups before they settled, the Kassites were organised in
family and tribal units which were named as 'House of so-and-so' (AkkadianBit + the name of a person, usually an ancestor). After they lost
political control of Babylonia, the Kassites remained there and in
neighbouring areas, and maintained their organisational houses with
ancestral Kassite names. These remained the administrative units of some
areas after the disappearance of the main dynasty of Kassite kings. The
three kings of this dynasty were from a region of Kassites which had not
ruled before.
1004
- 987 BC
Eulma shakin-shumi
987 -
985 BC
Ninurta-kudurri-usur I
(Not in the Georges Roux list.)
985 BC
Shiriqti-shuqamunu
(Not in the Georges Roux list.)
Elamite Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty VII 985 - 979 BC
The
Elamite rule of Babylon was a brief affair, with
the city being governed by an individual who's lineage and position is
unknown. The kingdom of Elam had been drawn into the Babylon state about
1120 BC, following the sack of Susa. Some Elamites probably emigrated to
Babylon itself and merged with the general population, sometimes attaining
high positions, although Elam itself never loses its distinct identity.
Elamite and Babylonian troops often fight side by side against outside
enemies, such as the
Persians, new arrivals at this
time on the eastern borders.
985 -
979 BC
Mar-bîti-apla-us.ur
Uncertain Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty VIII 979 - 748 BC
The situation in Babylonia had become extremely
confused by this time, with various Kassite, Babylonian, and newly-arrived Chaldaean
and Arabian
groups vying for power, as well as some individuals who claimed distant
Elamite
descent. Most of those who secured the throne achieved very little in the
face of such a politically fragmented state. Also arriving at this time were
groups of Aramaeans, the most important of them being the Gambulians and the
Puqudians. They did not seek integration into Babylonian society and mostly
did not seek political power, but their small village communities dominated
the fringes of the agricultural zone near the Tigris.
977 -
943 BC
Nabu-mukin-apli
971 -
970 BC
Festivals are suspended in Babylonia due to
Aramaean invasions.
943 BC
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II
Son.
942 -
c.920 BC
Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina
Brother. Some lists mark this as the start of Dynasty IX.
c.920
- 900 BC
Shamash-mudammiq
899?
- 888? BC
Nabu-shuma-ukin
887?
- 855 BC
Nabu-apla-iddina
854 -
819 BC
Marduk-zakir-shumi I
853 BC
Marduk-zakir-shumi calls to
Assyria for
support to quell a rebellion by his younger brother. Although Shalmaneser III
views him as an equal in rank, this period sees the start of continued
Assyrian interference in Babylonian political affairs. The remaining kings
were often very weak and reigns could be short.
823 BC
Babylonia comes to the aid of one of the princes of
Assyria who is
involved in a civil war for the right of succession. With the help of
Marduk-zakir-shumi, Shamshi-Adad V gains the Assyrian throne.
Babylon had mixed fortunes in its relations with Assyria, but in
823 BC it successfully supported Shamshi-Adad V's claim to the
Assyrian throne
819 -
813 BC
Marduk-balassu-iqbi
813 -
811 BC
Baba-aha-iddina
811 -
c.800 BC
(Five unknown rulers)
c.800
- c.790 BC
Ninurta-apla-X
c.790
- 780 BC
Marduk-bel-zeri
c.780
- 769 BC
Marduk-apla-usur
769 -
761 BC
Eriba-Marduk
760 -
748 BC
Nabu-shuma-ishkun
748 BC
Mixed
Kassite/Babylonian rule of Babylonia comes to an end. The Chaldaeans become
players in
Mesopotamian
politics, seizing Babylon itself in 734 BC.
Chaldaean Kings of Babylonia / Dynasty IX (& X) 734 - 627 BC
Babylonia's Dynasty IX saw the replacement of the
mixture of Kassite, Babylonian and Chaldaean rulers with Chaldaeans alone.
They contested regularly with
Assyria for the
rule of Babylonia, and changes of king could be very rapid. Assyria seemed
to be reluctant to take over Babylonia openly. Probably an acknowledgement
that Babylonia had fundamentally influenced Assyria's culture and religion
led to a sense of respect that prevented similar treatment to that meted out
to most of Assyria's troublesome possessions. Anyway, the extreme south was
impossible to control as it was covered with marshes in which traditional
military tactics could not be deployed. These areas provided refuge for the
Chaldaeans.
It is from this point that Babylonian chronology can be securely dated
thanks to Claudius Ptolemy's second century AD Canon of Kings, a
collection of astronomical observations passed down by Hellenistic Babylonian
priests, as well as other sources.
(Additional information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983).)
747 -
734 BC
(Nabonassar) Nabu-nasir
The earliest
certain regnal date in Babylonia.
734 BC
Perhaps two centuries after their first arrival in the region, the Chaldaeans
have become a dominant group in southern Mesopotamia. They now occupy Babylon,
replacing the previous mixture of different peoples at the top of the power
structure.
Whilst Babylon was not perhaps at this time the great city it
once had been and would again be, it was still one of the
biggest, most heavily-populated centres of population in the
ancient world of the early first millennium (click or tap on image to
view full sized)
734 -
732 BC
Nabu-nadin-zeri
(Not in the Georges Roux list.)
732 BC
Nabu-shuma-ukin II
(Not in the Georges Roux list.)
732 -
721 BC
Nabu-mukin-zeri / Nadios
729 - 722 BC
Tiglath-Pileser III of
Assyria rules
Babylonia direct until 727 BC, and then his successor, Shalmaneser V, does
the same.
722 - 710 BC
Marduk-apla-iddina II
Biblical
Merodach-Baladan or Berodach-baladan. Usurper.
720 BC
Assyrian king
Sargon attempts to attack
Elam but is defeated by the Elamites and Babylonians near
Der. It seems likely that
another attack is mounted in 713 BC, as Sargon is surprised by a rebellion
in Tabal while his attention
is focussed on Elamite lands.
710 - 703 BC
Marduk-apla-iddina II (Merodach-Baladan) is a Chaldaean prince who usurps
the throne with the aid of
Syria
and
Philistia,
and has dealings with Hezekiah of
Judah
at around the same time. Sargon II of
Assyria
eventually drives out the usurper and rules Babylonia direct during
the remainder of his lifetime.
With his death, many of the former subject states rebel, especially
Chaldaeans and neighbouring groups. Amongst the rebels are listed the
Hagaranu (possibly the descendants of Hagar, the mother of Ismael), the
Nabatu (very possibly the
descendants of Nebayoth, the eldest son of the same Ismael), and the
Kedarites (descendants
of Ismael's second son). According to the records, these tribes flee
from Assyria into the Arabian Desert and cannot be conquered. With the
recapture of Babylon a priority, it takes the Assyrians until 701 BC to
get around to quelling similar rebellions in
Judah and
the Phoenician
states.
703
BC
Marduk-zakir-shumi II
Reigned for a few weeks. Overthrown.
703 BC
Sennacherib retakes Babylon from Marduk-zakir-shumi, but only briefly before
Marduk-apla-iddina II (Merodach-Baladan) retakes the throne, strengthening
Chaldaean control. During his rule he also has dealings with Hezekiah of
Judah.
Sennacherib still has to mount another campaign into the south to deal with
Marduk-apla-idinna (whose resurgence perhaps accounts for a
Marduk-apla-idinna III in some lists). During this period he replaces
Bel-bini on the Babylonian throne with his own eldest son.
An
Elamite military raid
takes Babylon and the populace takes the opportunity to capture Ashur-nadin-shumi
himself. They hand him over to the Elamite king and he is taken off, never to
be seen again. A new native king takes the throne in 694 BC, but he is quickly
removed by Sennacherib. Then Mushezib-Marduk seizes the throne and organises
a strong anti-Assyrian
coalition made up of Chaldaeans, Babylonians,
Aramaeans and Elamites, whom
he pays from the temple treasury.
694 - 693 BC
Nergal-ushezib
(Name not in the
Georges Roux list.)
693 - 689 BC
Mushezib-Marduk
Chaldaean.
692/691 BC
Khumma-Menanu of Elam
king leads a coalition of states against
Assyrian king
Sennacherib at the Battle of Halule on the Tigris. With him is Mushezib-Marduk
of Babylon, the minor kingdom of Ellipi (roughly located in Luristan, to the
immediate west of Elam), and the kingdom of Anshan which seems able to be
able to call on the Parsua or Parsuash
(Persians). Anshan has often
- but not always - been part of Elam itself, but it may be ruled by a
subsidiary line at this time. The location of the battle suggests a march
by the allies towards the heart of Assyrian-dominated territory. The outcome
is not decisive, and does not prevent Sennacherib from devastating Babylon
itself following a fifteen month-long siege, although it does protect Elam.
689 - 681 BC
The siege of Babylon ends with it being sacked and looted, its population
largely deported. Sennacherib leaves the land in disarray with very little
activity taking place and few records. He rules in name but takes no active
role in Babylonia and is killed by his sons in 681 BC for the act.
680 - 669 BC
One
of those sons, Essarhaddon of
Assyria, rules
Babylonia direct, rebuilding Babylon in the 670s.
669 BC
One
of Essarhaddon's sons, Shamash-shumi-ukin, rules Babylonia on a
semi-independent basis, but local rule returns to the Chaldaeans, although
still under
Assyrian
overlordship. Shamash-shumi-ukin rebels against his brother in
Assyria, but
is besieged and disappears from history, presumably killed.
669 - 649 BC
Shamash-shumi-ukin
Son of Esarhaddon of
Assyria.
Rebelled and was defeated.
652 - 649 BC
Shamash-shumi-ukin rebels against his brother in the
Assyrian
kingdom. Ashurbanipal soon besieges
Babylon,
bringing it back into the empire. Rebellions in support of Babylon by the
Kedarites and
Nabatu are also put down,
possibly prior to Babylon's recapture. It takes two years of direct rule
before a puppet ruler of Babylon is placed on the throne.
A
rival faction begins to take shape in the south, and in 627 BC Kandalanu
mysteriously disappears, paving the way for a full-blown revolt by Nabopolasser
in the following year.
Assyrian kings
(or in Sin-shumu-lishir's case an apparent rival) quickly lose all control
there. Various cities proclaim allegiance to the different Assyrian claimants
to the throne but they are conquered one by one. The
Neo-Babylonian empire is born
under the leadership of Nabopolasser's Chaldaeans.
626 BC
Sin-shumu-lishir
Ruled parts,
including Babylon. (Not in the Georges Roux list.)
Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldaean / Aramaean) /
Dynasty X (XI) Of The Chaldaeans 629 - 539 BC
The Chaldaean Babylonians were, once the
Assyrian
empire had collapsed, the last great group of Semitic peoples. Together
with Aramaean groups,
they had ruled Babylonia under Assyrian overlordship for about a century
and a half, but did not gain true power until the Assyrians were ripe for
defeat. Then they proved themselves to be every bit as powerful as the
Assyrians had been, even down to forcing captive peoples to migrate
en-masse. Unfortunately, Babylonia never quite quashed pro-Assyrian
feeling within its empire, and in 556 BC a pro-Assyrian king came to
the throne, spelling disaster for the empire.
The three main Chaldaean groups were Bit-Dakkuri between Babylon and
Nippur, Bit-Amukani
between Nippur and
Uruk, and
Bit-Jakin in the marshy south. While their empire was a strong one, it
also faced opposition from a resurgent
Egypt in the west, various states in Anatolia, and invasions from the
north by Scythians and
Cimmerians. The state's
archives have not been preserved, so the fine detail of Babylonian rule
in the empire has been lost.
(Additional information by Jo Amdahl, from Empire of Gold: Foundations,
Jo Amdahl, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from
External Link:
Encyclopaedia
Iranica, andwith reference to a large number of original
and secondary sources that are included in the 'Persia and Eastwards'
section of the
Sources
page.)
629 - 611 BC
Nabopolasser
(Nabűaplaus.ur)
Chaldaean.
626 -
612 BC
Nabopolasser
revolts against his weakened
Assyrian
overlords, a conflict which ends with the invasion of Assyria in 616 BC and
the sacking of Ninevah in 612 BC by Babylonian, Scythian, and
Median forces. Babylonia gains
many of the former Assyrian territories, including in
Syria and
Phoenicia, but leaves
those in the Iranian Plateau to the Medes.
The Oxus Treasure contains this Persian model of a Median war
chariot, although it is only pulled by two horses rather that
the customary four.
Cyaxares of the Medes is the first to develop an organised
cavalry with divisions which can act together and in conjunction with other
units. It is this innovation that gives him the advantage over the Scythians
and breaks their hold over his land. Nabopolassar begins integrating cavalry
into his army when Cyaxares shows the king what they can achieve (a treaty
exists between the two peoples, and their armies are influenced by one another).
Nabopolassar's son, Nebuchadnezzar, later employs a large organised force of
cavalry. In his turn, Cyaxares begins using the heavier Assyro-Babylonian-style
chariots and presumably the faster, leggier horses that pull them.
611 - 605 BC
Necho
609 - 608 BC
Necho
gains Tabal in Anatolia, and the
following year deposes the king of
Judah. The crown
prince, Nebuchadnezzar, leads the Babylonian forces in
Syria as
he inflicts a serious defeat on the
Egyptians at
Carchemish in 605 BC.
604 - 562 BC
Nebuchadnezzar II
(Nabűkudurrius.ur)
Son of Nabopolasser.
Took the western end of
Assyria.
587 BC
Nebuchadnezzar annexes many previously independent states in the west in his
quest for complete dominance of
Syria-Palestine.
He subjugates
Judah for its
continued support of
Egypt, and the Jewish exile period begins as thousands of their number are
forced to move to Babylon. However, his siege of the
Phoenician city of
Tyre lasts for thirteen
years.
It
is during this period that Nebuchadnezzar rebuilds a former temple as the Tower
of Babel, carries out new construction work in the city of
Ur, and excavates a great
reservoir near Sippar.
He also builds the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the 'Wonders of the
Ancient World', in order to assuage the homesickness of his bride, Amyhia,
for the mountains of Iran, where her father, the
Median king Cyaxares, lives.
Their marriage had been agreed a few years before Nebuchadnezzar ascended
the throne in order to seal the alliance between Media and Babylon
(according to Berosius - or Berossus - in his third century BC history of
Babylon).
585 - 582 BC
Babylonia captures the kingdom of
Ammon in about 585 BC, and
Moab in 582 BC.
573 - 572 BC
Babylonia
captures the city of
Damas and all of
Phoenicia.
562 BC
The succession is problematic. Three kings rule after Nebuchadnezzar for a
total of only six years, and two of them are assassinated. Finally a man of
non-royal descent, Nabonidus, is placed on the throne.
Cilicia has already been
invaded and annexed by King Nergalsharusur, although some sources state
that Cilicia's King Appuashu resists him. In fact, Cilician resistance
to Babylonian occupation now forces Nabonidus to re-invade Cilicia at
the start of his reign, marking it out as an urgent priority case.
Despite being conquered anew, Cilicia remains an unwilling partner in
the empire.
554/3 - 552 BC
The
Assyrian-occupied
city of Hamath is the target of an
attack by Nabonidus. In 552 BC, Nabonidus moves his capital to Teima, deep in
Kedarite territory. They are
a people with whom he has good relations, and the place feels safer to him than
Babylon.
546 BC
Babylonia loses Tabal to the
Persians, as they
conquer much of Anatolia.
539 BC
Nabonidus angers the Babylonians by trying to reintroduce
Assyrian
culture, including placing the moon god Sin above Babylon's Marduk in
terms of importance. Perhaps because of that, resistance to Cyrus the
Great of Persia,
when he enters Babylonia from the east, is limited to just one major battle,
near the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers. On 12/13 October
(sources vary), Babylon is occupied by Cyrus, who adopts an enlightened
approach to his subjects, and allows the captive
Judeans to return
home.
According to the Greek writer, Berossus (author of the Babyloniaka
(The Babylonian History), now lost but quoted by later writers),
Nabonidus is granted a residency in
Karmana (to the east of
Persis) as its
satrap. Babylon itself now forms a satrapy in its own right.
Persian Satraps of Babirush (Babylonia) Incorporating the Satraps of Arbelitis &
Sittacene
Small Nav - Persian & Greek Empires
@import "../../css/history_substyles.css";
Conquered by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, the empire of
Babylonia was added to the
Persian empire.
Under the Persians, it was formed into a great satrapy known as Babirush
(alternatively shown as Bābiruš). The satrapy's borders largely followed
those of the former Babylonian empire, at least at first. As in the case of
Sardis, so far as the family relations are known, only princes of the
Achaemenid family and members of the families of the conspirators who aided
Darius the Great were installed as satraps in Babylon. This was generally
the case in all of the great satrapies. The post was not an hereditary one,
though, unlike some of the minor satrapies.
The main satrapy of
Athura (former
Assyria)
belonged to the great satrapy of Babylonia. Thanks to its close association
with Babylonia, the two names were used almost synonymously (certainly
by Herodotus and Strabo). Babylon's rank during the Achaemenid period
(and beyond) and the status of officials who were installed there
suggests that Babylonia was the superior great satrapy. On the occasion
of the rebellion of Megabyzus in
Syria, the
satrap of Babylonia was responsible for its suppression. This alone proves
its higher hierarchical rank, as does the fact that Alexander the Great
settled matters relating to Assyria in Babylon. It was also Strabo who
reported (accurately) that Athura consisted of (old) Assyria along with
Khilakku, Syria,
and
Phoenicia.
Therefore Megabyzus and other holders of his office were satraps of all of
these.
Available sources for the minor satrapies which were subservient to Babirush
are scanty, although one of them may have been Sittacene, which both
Curtius and Diodorus refer to as a satrapy or eparchy. Sittacene was a
region around the city of Sittace, located on the road from Babylon to
Susa, so this minor
satrapy would have flanked Babylon on its eastern side. Better attested is
Arbelitis and its chief settlement, Arbela, where Alexander took
money as booty after the Battle of Gaugamela. Arbela was also the capital
of the district which revolted against Darius the Great under the leadership
of Ciçantaxma of Asagarta
(Sagartia).
Following the rebellion's suppression, Darius subsumed his deeds against
Ciçantaxma within
Media as a whole,
suggesting that the region belonged to Media at the time. This evidently
changed not very long afterwards, and no later than by the mid-fifth century
BC it was transferred to Babylonia's jurisdiction.
Arabia around the oasis of Taymāʾ, which had belonged to the
Babylonian empire, was only won for Persia during Cambyses' Egyptian
campaign of 525 BC and was added to the great satrapy of
Egypt. Later Syria seems to have been established as a satrapy in
its own right under the name of Ebimari or
Ebir-nāri
(Babylonian) or Abar-Nahra (Aramaic-Persian) - 'beyond the river [Euphrates]'.
Once Syria was stripped away from Athura, thereby lessening Babylonia's
own importance, the post of Babylonian satrap was poorly attested. Where
these are known, the Old Persian names are shown first, followed by Greek
and other various interpretations. Although far from certain it may be the
case that Darius the Great instigated changes after 516 BC so that
Babylonia controlled only the area from the east of the Euphrates bend
in northern Syria, to Assyria and Babylonia itself.
(Additional information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983),
from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from the
Cyropaedia, Xenophon of Athens, from The Cambridge Ancient
History, John Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald
(Eds), from Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era,
Daniel T Potts, from Alexander the Great, Krzysztof Nawotka, and
from External Links:
Encyclopaedia
Iranica, and the
Nabonidus Chronicle, contained within Assyrian and Babylonian
Chronicles, A K Grayson (Translation, 1975 & 2000, and now
available via Livius in an improved version).)
Despite the fall of Babylon itself to the
Persians, it
is entirely possible that pockets of resistance remain - or at least
areas in which Persian overlordship is tacitly acknowledged while local
rule is maintained on a semi-independent basis, at least for a time.
The Chaldaeans who had provided
Babylon's last dynasty of kings may be one such case. Although specific
details are not recorded, the Book of Daniel seems to retain a memory of
this in Belshar-uzur and Darius the
Mede (the latter especially).
This Achaemenid (Persian empire) palace decoration stood in
the city of Babylon and was transported to Berlin upon being
rediscovered by archaeologists in the twentieth century
fl c.539 BC
Belshar-uzur / Bel-ŝarra-Uzur
Son of Nabonidus. The Belshazzar of the Book of Daniel.
539 BC
Belshar-uzur is the son of Nabonidus and may legitimately claim to be the
true successor to the throne even though he holds no power and doesn't have
the resources to enforce his claim. He is apparently killed by Cyrus the
Great even though his father is allowed to live, so he cannot be the
otherwise unknown Babylonian satrap for the first couple of years before
being replaced by Gaubaruva. Instead, as Cyrus allows existing offices to
be retained at first, this post is probably still filled by its
Neo-Babylonian incumbent.
fl c.539 BC
Darius the Mede
'King of the Chaldaeans' in the Book of Daniel.
Darius the Mede is much harder to authenticate. Depending upon the
identification of Ahasuerus (a St James Bible translation of the Greek and
Old Persian Xerxes and Xšayārša respectively), Amyhia, daughter of
Cyaxares of Media, may possibly
be his aunt. He is referred to as the king of the Chaldaeans (but perhaps
only after the fall of Babylon's last king). His most famous act is to
throw Daniel into the lion's den, and he is apparently aged sixty-two when
he is made king over the Chaldaeans ('made' seemingly meaning that he does
not claim the kingship himself but is offered it).
However, he is not attested anywhere outside the Bible. This could be
political, of course, as the Persians would be keen on stamping their
control over the entire region even while possibly tolerating local rule in
their name. Darius has been linked with several other, historically
attested, rulers, including Cyrus the Great himself, occupier of Babylon,
but the Bible clearly differentiates between the two people. A key point to
remember is that the book of Daniel is written by a Jew who is part
of the Hebrew exile, living a life of captivity in Babylon until freed by
Cyrus in 539 BC, making it a contemporary (and very local!) account, and
therefore perfectly placed to record details which may be lost to later Greek
authors. The most likely explanation is that Cyrus permits the existence of
client kingdoms of limited duration, just as the
Roman
empire does in newly conquered territories many centuries later, but that
Darius the Mede could also be Gaubaruva, the satrap of Babylonia.
Gaubaruva is appointed as the
Persian satrap
of Babylonia, but perhaps only after a Babylonian has held the post for
a couple of years. He is known by a whole host of interpretations of his
name, from the Old Persian Gaubaruva or the Akkadian Gubaru, to the Greek
Gobryas, and the Latin Gobar(es). He can also be equated with the Cyaxares
of the Cyropaedia, but should not be confused with the General Ugbaru
(Old Persian) or Gobryas (Greek) who aids Cyrus the Great in the conquest
of Mesopotamia (a mistake made in the Grayson version of the Nabonidus
Chronicle). Ugbaru may in fact govern the district or province of
Gutium for a short time
before dying, having already reached an advanced age.
524/522 BC
Gaubaruva seems to have been extremely powerful in his role as satrap of
Babylonia. No subsequent satrap seems to wield quite such extensive power
and in 522 BC he is one of the seven co-conspirators who remove the
'usurper' Gaumata, from the Persian throne. Although far from certain it
may be the case that Darius the Great instigates changes after 516 BC so
that the satrap of Babylonia controls only the area from the east of the
Euphrates bend in northern Syria, to Assyria and Babylonia itself.
Upon the execution of the
Persian usurper,
Smerdis, Nebuchadnezzar causes chaos in Babylon when he puts himself forward
as a claimant to the Babylonian throne. The new Achaemenid king, Darius,
deals with him before chasing down several other rebellions. On 13 December
he forces a crossing of the Tigris and then wins a decisive battle on 18
December. Clearly Nebuchadnezzar has gained a sizeable following, but Darius
enters Babylon and the rebellion is crushed.
c.484 BC
Although any records to prove it have not survived, it would seem to be in
this period, between about 490-482 BC, in which
Ebir-nāri
is created a satrapy in its own right, removing it from the administration
of Babylonia. The cause may well be the revolt which arises shortly after a
greater revolt in
Egypt. In fact tablets from Babylonia seem to show evidence of two
risings by claimants to the Babylonian throne. The first uprising is that of
Bel-shimanni, which can perhaps be dated to the high summer of 484 BC. This
seems only to last a week or two before being put down.
484? BC
Bel-shimanni
'King of
Babylonia'. Rebel claimant. Presumed killed.
482 BC
All is still not well in Babylonia. A second uprising is sparked when
Shamash-eriba claims the city - and probably the former empire - as his
own. This uprising is more serious than the last, enduring into the autumn
of 482 BC. It is put down, probably by one of the soon-to-be
Persian grand
marshals, Megabyxos, and Xerxes removes 'King of Babylonia' from his own
titles. The city is reduced in stature by this act, and the city walls and
sanctuaries are slighted. The gold statue of Marduk is removed. In effect,
Babylonia is no longer a kingdom, merely a province of the Persian empire.
482 BC
Shamash-eriba
'King of
Babylonia'. Rebel claimant. Presumed killed.
465 - c.447 BC
Megabyzus may hand over the satrapy of
Ebir-nāri
(possibly to his son) to go and deal with the rebellion in
Mudrāya.
Subsequently, the captured Egyptian prince, Inarus, is crucified along with
fifty
Athenian
prisoners by Amestris, the queen mother. Megabyzus had negotiated an
armistice with Inarus with promises of safe conduct and he now feels that
his honour has been compromised. He returns to Ebir-nāri and proceeds
to revolt.
As the region's superior, the satrap of Babylonia is responsible for the
suppression of the revolt, but the able Megabyzus routs not one but two
expeditions which are sent against him. Both commanders are wounded by
him in person (just as Inarus had been), and he himself sustains a wound,
all of which apparently satisfies honour and he is reconciled with the
Persian king.
fl c.450s BC
Tritantaikhmes
Son of Artabanos.
Satrap of Babylonia?
c.450s BC
Tritantaikhmes, son of Artabanos, who had been a marshal at the time of
Xerxes' Greek expedition of 480 BC, can be placed here as satrap if his
father's name should replace the Artabazos given by Herodotus. Father's
names are rarely provided by other authors, so even this clue to the
satrap's possible identity is a valuable one.
459 BC
Ezra, a 'scribe', leads the second body of exiled Israelites back to
Jerusalem
from Babylon. He also writes the Book of Ezra, and according to tradition
collects and edits the books of the Old Testament.
At the Battle of Gaugamela, Darius'
Persian units
in the centre of the formation take heavy casualties, but the commander
of one of those divisions, Ariobarzanes, satrap of
Persis, is able
to leave the battlefield with his king. Darius flees eastwards and the
defence of each province is left to its satrap. Alexander seizes
Babylon and
Susa and, having
gathered intelligence on
Persis, he soon
captures that too. Most administrative posts are retained under the
Greek empire, including the satrapies of
Mesopotamia.
Argead Dynasty in Babylonia
Small Nav - Persian & Greek Empires
@import "../../css/history_substyles.css";
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of
Macedonia
who reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his
two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic
sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia
in 331-328 BC, the
Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's death in 323 BC and the
subsequent regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors held
no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals who really held control
of Alexander's empire. Following that latter period and during the course of
several wars, Babylonia was largely left in the hands of the
Seleucid empire
from 305 BC.
Babylonia was not unknown to the Greeks. Even during the Achaemenid period
many Greeks travelled here, some as traders, some as Persian military allies
and some, like Herodotus, on journeys of exploration. There seems not to
have been a Greek community in Babylon before the Argead conquest, however.
Herodotus appears to have had trouble in finding enough information to
properly fill out his Babylonian entry (such as an account of the city's
past kings). Babylonian business documents bear this out. People they often
call Greeks in fact have Anatolian names. Nomenclature also bears this out,
as the Greeks do not know the two great rivers of
Mesopotamia
by their universal regional names, Purat and Deklath, but from the
Medo-Persian corruptions of
them - Ufratush and Tigra (the modern Euphrates and Tigris).
Under the Persians, the main satrapy of Assyria belonged to the great
satrapy of Babylonia. Thanks of
its close association with Babylonia, the two names were used almost
synonymously (certainly by Herodotus and Strabo). Babylon's rank during
the Achaemenid period (and beyond) and the status of officials who were
installed there suggests that Babylonia was the superior great satrapy.
On the occasion of the rebellion of Megabyzus in
Syria, the
satrap of Babylonia was responsible for its suppression. This alone proves
its higher hierarchical rank, as does the fact that Alexander the Great
settled matters relating to Assyria in Babylon.
(Additional information from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities,
Flavius Josephus, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from
The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), and from External Links:
Encyclopćdia
Britannica, and Diodorus of Sicily at the
Library of World History.)
Feeble-minded
half-brother of Alexander the Great.
317 - 310 BC
Alexander IV of
Macedonia
Infant son of
Alexander the Great and Roxana.
332 - 328 BC
Mazaeus / Mazdai
Satrap of Babylonia. Former Persian satrap of
Athura. Died.
328 - 323 BC
?
Satrap of Babylonia.
323 - 321 BC
Archon of Pella
Greek satrap of Babylonia &
Susiana. Killed in
battle.
322 - 320 BC
Immediately following Alexander's untimely death,
Susiana is presumably
governed by Archon, who holds Babylonia in the name of the titular successors
to the empire. The First War of the Diadochi (the successors - the
generals of Alexander's army) sees civil war break out between the generals,
and Perdiccas, regent of
Macedonia, is murdered by his own generals during an invasion of
Egypt.
Alexander's successor, Philip III, agrees terms with the murdering generals
and appoints them as regents.
Despite its gradual relegation as a place of importance in the
face of the Greek preference for Seleucia, Babylon was still of
huge importance in Mesopotamia, as can be seen in this unknown
artist's impression of the city (click or tap on image to view full
sized), while above is the route of Alexander's ongoing
campaigns across the ancient world (click or tap on map to view full
sized)
A new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the Macedonian empire and
commander of the European section. The so-called
Empire of Antigonus
sees its eponymous ruler remain in charge of
Lycia and
Pamphylia, to which is added
Lycaonia, Syria
and Canaan,
making him commander of the Asian section. Ptolemy retains Egypt, Lysimachus
retains
Phrygia and
Thrace,
while the three murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes -
are given the former
Persian provinces of Babylonia,
Media, and
Susiana respectively.
Arrhidaeus, the former regent, receives Hellespontine Phrygia.
The death of Antipater leads to the Second War of the Diadochi. Philip
III is killed by his stepmother, Olympias, in 317 BC with her being killed by
Cassander the following year. Cassander also captures Alexander IV and
Roxana and installs a governor in
Athens,
subsuming its democratic system. Eumenes is defeated in Asia and murdered
by his own troops, and Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon by Antigonus.
The result is that Cassander controls the European territories (including
Macedonia), while the
Empire of Antigonus
controls those in Asia (Asia Minor, centred on Phrygia and extending as far as
Susiana). Polyperchon
remains in control of part of the Peloponnese.
314 - 311 BC
The Third War of the Diadochi results because the
Empire of Antigonus
has grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals, so Antigonus is
attacked by Ptolemy
(Egypt),
Lysimachus
(Phrygia
and Thrace),
Cassander
(Macedonia),
and Seleucus (who is hoping to regain Babylonia). The latter indeed does secure
Babylon and the others conclude peace terms with Antigonus in 311 BC.
The
Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC Antigonus proclaims
himself king, so the following year the other generals do the same in their
domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet in his stronghold in the Peloponnese,
dies in 303 BC and Cassander claims his territory. The war ends in the death
of Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Seleucus is now king of all
Hellenic territory from
Syria eastwards,
and the Seleucid
empire is created.
The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and
destructive Wars of the Diadochi which decided how
Alexander's empire would be divided
Seleucus founds the city of Seleucia in
Mesopotamia
by massively rebuilding and expanding an existing settlement. Alternatively
known as Seleucia-on-Tigris. The city soon provides nearby Babylon with a
major competitor and the latter begins to decline and empty, leading to its
eventual abandonment. Seleucid control of the region is handled first from
Babylonia, then from Seleucia, and finally from Antioch in Syria.
141 - 126 BC
The
Parthians under the very able Mithradates I make the most of the
Seleucid civil war
by taking Media in 141
BC. In the same year Mithradates also captures Seleucia and then
Uruk. Although it
briefly loses Media and Babylonia to Antiochus VII in 130-129 BC, thereafter
the Parthian empire retains its holdings in
Mesopotamia
(recapturing Babylonia in 126 BC), until it eventually breaks up. It leaves
behind it a patchwork of kingdoms which remain in loose alliance with one
another for a further two hundred years. In AD 284, Sassanid
Persia makes a treaty
with Rome
which hands over
Mesopotamia as
a Roman province.