Near East Kingdoms

Mari (City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

Ancient Mesopotamia (Intro) Canaanite States & Groups Islamic Empire Israelites & Israel Mesopotamian States & Groups Rome Syrian States & Groups

The city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and up to a millennium before that of the Indus Valley culture. It developed out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent, a period which had seen Neolithic Farmer practices spread far and wide across the Near East and beyond.

As irrigation improved so the more southerly reaches of the Euphrates could at last be occupied by humans and their animals. Southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and the western edge of Iran) was subjected to permanent settlement, initially in the form of pastoralists but soon as farmers too.

Cultures around the edges of this progression included the Hassuna and Samarra which began this settlement process, and perhaps elements of the Hissar culture in the Iranian highlands were also involved.

By the late fourth millennium BC, Sumer was divided into approximately a dozen city states which were independent of one another and which used local canals and boundary stones to mark their borders. Many early historical events in the region are found only in the Sumerian king list, which notates the rulers of the city states (and see feature link), but archaeology has also uncovered a wealth of detail.

Mari was located in Mesopotamia (albeit just inside the modern border of Syria), on the site of Tell Hariri on the west bank of the Euphrates - the most northerly of all the Sumerian city states. Thought to have been inhabited since the fifth millennium BC, from the early third millennium BC the inhabitants of Mari were Semitic, probably part of the gradual migration which had given rise to the Eblaite and Akkadian polities.

Their village became a flourishing city state from about 2900 BC until circa 1760 BC, forming a strategic stronghold between Sumer and the city states of ancient Syria and northern Mesopotamia. It was destroyed in the twenty-fourth century BC, and again in the twenty-third, and it only revived when Amorites rulers succeeded Sumerian rulers.

Mari was located on the middle Euphrates, controlling a long stretch of the Euphrates valley which incorporated villages of pastoralists who used the Syrian steppe for winter pasture. Their social organisation was tribal. People claimed descent from a common ancestor, whether real or fictional, but affiliations could be somewhat loose. Some tribes were absorbed by others, and some people even changed tribes.

Those which occupied land around Mari in the late third millennium BC and early second were divided into two major branches: those 'of the left', or the north when facing the rising sun, the Sim'alites, and those 'of the right', or the south, the Yaminites. The Sim'alites were the tribe of Zimri-Lim, the warlord who seized the throne of 'Amorite Mari' in the mid-eighteenth century BC.

The Yaminites are frequently connected in modern works with the Israelite tribe of Benjamin, the Benjaminites. Given that they are already in place when the Israelites first migrate into Syria and Canaan in the eighteenth century BC, it would seem this this unit is later 'adopted' into the Israelite tribal collective.

Those Yaminites lived closest to Mari and their divisions are better known. These included the Amnanu (who appear to be connected to the Amorites of the Syrian state of Amnanum) and Yakhruru (again seemingly connected, this time to the later state of Yakhan), groups which are also attested in the northern Sumer region which was in the process of becoming better known as Babylonia. They were often - but not always - better controlled by Mari, with members being subjected to a census, and having to provide labour and military service. Headmen were appointed to take responsibility for the group's interactions with the palace.

More distant groups, such as the Suteans or Sutians who predominated to the direct east of Mari, along the eastward section of the Euphrates there, escaped such control and often 'enjoyed' a somewhat negative relationship with Mari's rulers. Resources could be scare here though, and competition between farmers and pastoralists could be fierce and violent.

Hammurabi's Babylonian empire eventually conquered and sacked it in the eighteenth century BC.

This is the tenth set of entries on the Sumerian list comprising kings 60-65. Six kings achieved dominance over Sumer, ruling for 136 / 184 years (Lists 1 & 2). Here, List 1 is primarily used, backed up by List 2 and List 3 (see Sumer for details). There are also further names which are not on the list (apart from Ilshu) and which seem to clash in their estimated dates. These are listed with a shaded background following Ilshu.

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick (Penguin Books, 2001), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Samuel Noah Kramer ('List 1' of Sumerian rulers, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1963), from Political Change and Cultural Continuity in Eshnunna from the Ur III to the Old Babylonian Period, Clemens Reichel (List of Eshnunna's rulers, providing some names which are not on the Bruce R Gordon list as part of a dissertation proposal for the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago, 11 June 1996), from First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Peter Bellwood (Second Ed, Wiley-Blackwell, 2022), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from The First Empires, J N Postgate (Oxford 1977), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Ancient History: A Theory About Ancient Times, L C Gerts (List 4 of Sumerian rulers, Chapter 12: The Sumerian king list, 2002), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), from The Age of the God-Kings, Kit van Tulleken (Ed, Time Life Books, Amsterdam 1987), from History & Philology, Walther Sallaberger & Ingo Schrakamp (Eds, Arcane III, Brepols, 2015), and from External Links: Ancient Worlds, and The Sumerian Kings List, J A Black, G Cunningham, E Fluckiger-Hawker, E Robson, & G Zólyomi ('List 2' of Sumerian rulers, available via the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford, 1998), and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love ('List 3' of Sumerian rulers at Sarissa.org), and Images from History (University of Alabama), and Evolution of Sumerian kingship (Ancient World Magazine), and Amorites in the early Old Babylonian Period, R de Boer (Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands, doctoral thesis which is available to download as a PDF (author's corrected version)).)

fl c.2600? BC

God-king deified with a temple in his name, founded c.2600 BC.

The dates of rule for Mari do not fit in with those which have been approximately established for Adab if the (high) kingship is gained at the start of this dynasty, so more probably the kingship is secured around 2350-2340 BC, perhaps only by the final king in the dynasty, Carrum-iter, with the list including his entire dynasty to reflect his right to rule).

The surviving 17,000 or more clay tablets in the library of Ebla's Royal Archives are the earliest written documents in Syria, and they provide a wealth of detailed information about the region and its kingdoms and trade networks

c.2500 - 2470 BC

Ruled for 30/90 years.

c.2470 - 2453 BC

Son. Ruled for 17/7 years. Same as Lamgi-Mari?

c.2470 - 2450 BC

Not on the king list - clashes with listed kings.

c.2453 - 2423 BC

Ruled for 30 years. The 'Leatherworker'. Ikun-Shamash?

c.2450 - 2445 BC

Not on the king list - clashes with listed kings.

c.2445 - 2425 BC

Not on the king list - clashes with listed kings.

c.2440s BC

Archaeological work by Hormuzd Rassam in the AD 1880s produces several finds which open up areas of Sippar's history which simply are not known at the time in any written sources. These include a statue of about 2450 BC, dedicated by King Ikun-Shamagan or Iku-shumugan of Mari.

c.2440 - 2425 BC

Eannatum of Lagash annexes virtually all of 'Post-Diluvian' Sumer, including Kish, Nippur, Uruk (briefly), Ur, and Larsa, and reduces his arch-rivals at Umma, twenty-nine kilometres away, to a tributary state with the defeat of Enakalle.

In addition, he extends his realm to parts of Elam and along the Persian Gulf, apparently using terror as a matter of policy. The stele of the vultures describes the violent treatment which is meted out to his enemies.

Urur of Akshak leads a northern coalition against him but that is destroyed, with Akshak recognising Lagash's supremacy along with Mari, which has been involved in frequent warfare against Lagash and its dominance. Lagash is later eclipsed by Umma under Lugalzaggesi.

c.2425 - 2400 BC

Not on the king list - clashes with listed kings.

c.2400 BC

Iblul-Il is credited with conquering the city state of Ebla.

c.2423 - 2403 BC

Ruled for 20 years. The 'Fuller'.

c.2403 - 2373 BC

Ruled for 30 years. The 'Gudu Priest'.

c.2373 - 2364 BC

Or Sharrum-Ite. Ruled for 9/7 years. Gained the kingship?

c.2334? BC

Mari is destroyed, although opinion is divided on the culprit. It is likely either Sargon of Akkad (who later states that he passes through Mari on his campaign to the west, using it as a base of operations), or Mari's traditional commercial rivals, the people of Ebla. The region declines in importance with the city probably becoming little more than a village.

c.2260s? BC

Presumably rebuilt to an extent during the sometimes turbulent governance of the Akkadians, the city of Mari is destroyed again, this time by Ebla. A 'dynasty of generals' appears to assume control of the reduced remnants.

Maru (Shakkanakku City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

At around the same time as the city was destroyed for a second time in less than a century, this time by Ebla probably sometime around the 2260s BC, a 'dynasty of generals' (Akkadian shakkanakku) perhaps came into being as early as the reign of Manishtushu of Akkad.

They ruled the city as an independent state which remained that way for the next three and-a-half centuries. That independence was probably prolonged by the Gutian invasion of Sumer which resulted in a degree of chaos and confusion to their south, followed by bad Gutian management and then expulsion in favour of the successful 'Third Dynasty' of Ur.

The source for the list of generals is unknown and, until the true expansion of the internet in the AD 2010s, the list itself was hardly ever reproduced elsewhere. Only the last name does not come from the list, but this one also appears in Ebla's records.

c.2249 - 2190 BC

Reigned for 60 years.

c.2189 - 2185 BC

Son? Reigned for 5 years.

c.2184 - 2140 BC

Reigned for 45 years.

c.2139 - 2136 BC

Son? Reigned for 4 years.

c.2135 - 2125 BC

Brother? Reigned for 11 years.

c.2124 - 2117 BC

Reigned for 8 years.

c.2116 - 2082 BC

Reigned for 35 years.

c.2081 - 2072 BC

Reigned for 10 years.

c.2071 - 2067 BC

Son? Reigned for 5 years.

c.2067 - 2060? BC

Brother? Reigned for 2-6 years?

c.2017 BC

As with much of southern Mesopotamia, the city and state of Ur is rapidly fading in power and influence as harvests fail and the population declines. Ur's massive bureaucracy hinders it from making rapid decisions to ameliorate the situation.

On top of all of this, new waves of immigration into the region by Amorites add an extra layer of confusion and conflict. One of Ibbi-Sin's officials, Ishbi-Erra, a former governor in Mari, now takes the opportunity to move to the subject city of Isin and create his own city state.

c.2016 BC

Isin occupies and plunders the province of Hamazi as Ur's empire collapses. Ishbi-Erra of Isin holds Ur to ransom by withholding shipments of grain, and has long since formed an alliance with Nippur.

c.2004 BC

Long oppressed by the 'Third Dynasty' city of Ur, Kindattu of Elam, together with Simashki and the people of Susa, sacks the city and leads its king into captivity, ending the third dynasty and Sumerian civilisation.

With this threat removed, Elam becomes a powerful kingdom, although it is pushed out of southern Mesopotamia six years later by the Amorite city state of Isin. However, Elam appears to hold on to Kish.

c.2000 BC

c.1950? BC

Last of dynasty of generals? Also controlled Ebla.

c.1900 BC

The 'dynasty of generals' comes to an end, for reasons unknown. The collapse of Ur has already resulted in a downward turn in Mari's fortunes, with the city's importance being greatly reduced. It may even be abandoned for a period around this date.

With the important route into Mesopotamia now open because Mari is no longer controlling it, Amorite groups around Terqa are able to move in and take over the region.

Maru (Amorite City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

Some time before 2000 BC the population of Mari began to swell again as a result of the arrival in northern Mesopotamia of members of a loose confederation of tribes called Amorites. By 1900 BC the north-western Syrian Sim'alite branch of Amorites was already settled in nearby Terqa, about sixty kilometres to the north of Mari.

With Mari potentially even abandoned from about 1900 BC, they managed to subdue or occupy it (and subsequently repopulate it) to establish a relatively stable kingdom. Although records are sparse for this period of Mari's history, a second age of prosperity began for it. For a while it also manage to subdue the Hurrians of Urkesh.

c.1865 BC

Sîn-abūšu must accede the throne of the small Diyala-region city of Shadappum around 1865 BC. The Mari archive states that Amīnum captures Shaduppum in 1862 BC which must be at the beginning of Sîn-abūšu's reign. Apart from that archive mention, there are no indications for this event and Sîn-abūšu's year names continue to be used in Shaduppum.

c.1820 - 1811 BC

Amorite ruler, possibly from Terqa.

Mari and Ekallatum begin a feud that lasts until c.1761 BC.

c.1811 - 1795 BC

Also king of Terqa? Assassinated by his servants.

c.1800? BC

Yahdun-Lim introduces Babylonian language and writing style as a chancellery standard, including the practice of using year names. He starts to rebuild a royal palace which is later famed for its scale and opulence, and his Mari quickly becomes the dominant state on the middle Euphrates.

He sends troops north towards the Mediterranean, to join those of Yamkhad in fighting against several previously subject Syrian tribal states, including Harran and Tuttul. The enemy armies are defeated and their towns are attacked. Possibly included in this attack, the Yaminites are also pursued as far west as the Lebanon mountains.

Given the fact that Shamshi-Adad soon conquers Mari and replaces its ruler, this would seem to be an attempt to fight back against him which ultimately fails.

This tablet from eighteenth century BC Mari contains records of food supplies, with the symbol of a human head with a triangular object in front of it being the verb 'to eat' in later Sumerian

c.1795 - 1791 BC

Son. Also king of Terqa?

c.1791 BC

Shamshi-Adad sets up an empire which stretches from the Mediterranean to the Zagros Mountains, the kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia. He conquers Mari, taking control of Terqa and Urkesh, and places Yasmah-Adad, one of his sons, on the throne. Yasmah-Adad marries Beltum, daughter of the king of Qatna, as his principal wife.

c.1791 - 1776 BC

Upper Mesopotamian 'Governor of Mari'. Overthrown.

c.1776 BC

Upon the death of Shamshi-Adad, his kingdom falls apart. In Mari, the Amorite Zimri-Lim of Alakhtum and Terqa destroys Yasmah-Adad's forces. Yasmah-Adad himself is either killed or flees (sources fail to agree).

c.1776 - 1761 BC

A Sim'alite. King of Mari, Alakhtum & Terqa.

Son. Predeceased his father.

Zimri-Lim greatly extends Mari's glory when he expands the royal palace to encompass more than 300 rooms, as well as founding the state archives. He establishes strong ties with Alep, Babylon and Hazor, having previously married Princess Shiptu, daughter of Sumu'epuh of Alep, and having been sold the city state of Alakhtum. He later marries the daughter of the king of Qatna, Dam-hurasim. He also establishes trade relations with at least thirty-two kings (mentioned in the palace archives), including those of Andarig and Apum, and counts Anum-Herwa of Zalwar as his vassal.

c.1761 BC

Hammurabi turns on his old ally, defeating Zimri-Lim in battle and conquering Mari. Two years later Mari is sacked and devastated by Hammurabi and the region is incorporated into the Babylonian empire. The area is subsequently occupied by scattered groups of Assyrians and Babylonians, with the former city remaining a village. Power in the Middle Euphrates shifts some 100kms north to Zimri-Lim's home city of Terqa.

c.1730 BC

The Kassites invade Mesopotamia, taking Mari.

Mari (Kassite City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

The Kassites were another non-Semitic, non-Indo-European mountain people just like the Amorites. They invaded Babylon in the eighteenth century BC and eventually conquered it, ruling over it until 748 BC. before then, they ruled locally in Mari, and perhaps in nearby Terqa too.

c.1730 - 1705 BC

Kassite leader when they invaded the Babylonian empire.

c.1730/15 BC

The invading Kassite army under Gandash is crushed by Iluma-Ilum of the Sealand Dynasty. However, Gandash does successfully conquer Mari, and the Kassite kings reside there.

c.1705 - 1690 BC

c.1690 - 1680 BC

King of Terqa / Hana.

c.1680 - 1665 BC

c.1665 - 1650 BC

c.1650 - 1640 BC

c.1640 - 1630 BC

c.1630 - 1600 BC

c.1600 - 1595 BC

c.1595 BC

Conquered Babylon.

c.1595 BC

The economically weakened Babylonian empire is sacked by the Hittites, allowing the Kassites to move south from Mari and take over control of Babylonia.

c.800s - 700s BC

A dynasty of Assyrian governors leaves royal-style inscriptions without acknowledging the weakened Assyrian king. Instead, they cheekily claim descent from Hammurabi of Babylon.

c.331 BC

The village of Mari disappears from history upon the arrival of the Greeks.