Near East Kingdoms

Agade / Akkad (City State) (Mesopotamia)

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The city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and up to a millennium before that of the Indus Valley culture. It developed out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent, a period which had seen Neolithic Farmer practices spread far and wide across the Near East and beyond.

As irrigation improved so the more southerly reaches of the Euphrates could at last be occupied by humans and their animals. Southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and the western edge of Iran) was subjected to permanent settlement, initially in the form of pastoralists but soon as farmers too. Cultures around the edges of this progression included the Hassuna and Samarra which began this settlement process, and perhaps elements of the Hissar culture in the Iranian highlands were also involved.

By the late fourth millennium BC, Sumer was divided into approximately a dozen city states which were independent of one another and which used local canals and boundary stones to mark their borders. Many early historical events in the region are found only in the Sumerian king list, which notates the rulers of the city states (and see feature link), but archaeology has also uncovered a wealth of detail.

Known to have been situated to the immediate north of Sumer itself, the ruins of the city of Agade and the state of Akkad are yet to be discovered. The city was probably located on the west bank of the Euphrates in central Mesopotamia, between Sippar to its immediate north and Kish, some way to its south. At best it was regarded as being on the northern edges of traditional Sumerian territory. Tell Muhammed, on the outskirts of Baghdad, has been suggested as a candidate but is yet to be fully examined.

The Akkadians were of Semitic origin, fairly late arrivals into Mesopotamia after having first left the Arabian Desert in the second half of the fourth millennium BC. They migrated outwards into Egypt, the Levant, and Mesopotamia, with infiltration into the latter occurring gradually throughout the third millennium BC, although they were a dominating presence by around 2300 BC.

The people of Mari a little farther to the north were probably of the same stock, although all Mesopotamians appear to have enjoyed a varied range of ancient origins, even the Sumerians themselves. Semitic languages in the region are first attested about 2800 BC, and these survived alongside Sumerian until about 1800 BC, when the latter finally died out of everyday use after two centuries of sharp decline.

The majority of written sources regarding Akkad come from a period around five hundred years after it reached its peak. They date to the 'Old Babylonian' period of about 1800-1600 BC when the scribes of Babylon were faithfully and accurately noting details of Akkadian royal inscriptions on statues and stelae and presenting them in the form of anthologies. Some original inscribed statues were also preserved by Babylonian kings.

Under the rule of Sargon I, the city state of Agade (the Sumerian name for the city itself in the region of Akkad, known in the Old Testament as Accad) rose for a brief time to be a powerful empire, becoming one of the first to unify the entire southern-central Mesopotamian region since the beginning of the 'Early Dynastic I' period and the earliest named city rulers.

Although the Sumerian king list claims that Sargon built Agade, the city is mentioned in the reigns of more than one of his immediate predecessors. These include En-cakanca-ana of second dynasty Uruk, and Lugalzaggesi of third dynasty Uruk, so Sargon is more likely to have re-built or expanded the city. It seems to have been a new arrival on the scene, however, being built up quite swiftly from an earlier village.

According to the king list, a total of twelve kings ruled for 197 years, once (in one dynasty) in Agade (List 1), or eleven kings ruled for 181 years, or nine kings ruled for 161 / 177 years (List 2). This is the fifteenth set of entries on the list, comprising kings 82-92. Here, List 1 is primarily used, backed up by List 2 (see Sumer for details). Note that older dating systems place Sargon at circa 3000 BC, but this now appears to be a wildly inaccurate estimate.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Ras Feqade, from Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick (Penguin Books, 2001), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Samuel Noah Kramer ('List 1' of Sumerian rulers, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1963), from Political Change and Cultural Continuity in Eshnunna from the Ur III to the Old Babylonian Period, Clemens Reichel (List of Eshnunna's rulers, providing some names which are not on the Bruce R Gordon list as part of a dissertation proposal for the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago, 11 June 1996), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from The First Empires, J N Postgate (Oxford 1977), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Ancient History: A Theory About Ancient Times, L C Gerts (List 4 of Sumerian rulers, Chapter 12: The Sumerian king list, 2002), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), from The Age of the God-Kings, Kit van Tulleken (Ed, Time Life Books, Amsterdam 1987), and from External Links: Ancient Worlds, and The Sumerian Kings List, J A Black, G Cunningham, E Fluckiger-Hawker, E Robson, & G Zólyomi ('List 2' of Sumerian rulers, available via the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford, 1998), and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love ('List 3' of Sumerian rulers at Sarissa.org), and Enheduanna - The First Named Poet, Anthony Fisher (Anthony Fisher Poet, with audio recording of part of the composition, Nin-me-šara).)

c.2440 BC

Under Enshakushanna, Uruk conquers Hamazi, Agade, Kish, and Nippur to claim hegemony over all of Sumer. He also throws the Elamites out of Awan. He is the first ruler known to take the Sumerian title en ki-en-gi ki-uri, or 'lord of Sumer and Akkad'.

Such a usage would suggest, though, that Agade, or at least the embryonic state of Akkad around it, is already great, on a par with Sumer itself, which seems unreasonable at this time. Despite his own conquests Enshakushanna is also briefly subject to the overlordship of Eannatum of Lagash.

fl c.2350 BC

Existence and location uncertain.

Alusarsid is an early king of Agade who 'subdued Elam and Barahs (Barahsi?)'. This is contemporary with the reign of Lugalzaggesi of Umma and Uruk.

An element of more recent scholarly thinking equates Alusarsid with Rimush, the successor of Sargon of the Akkadian empire, below, suggesting that his name has been misread until now. Alusarsid has also been placed in 'Kis' or Kish as ruler there, showing a great deal of ambiguity for this ruler's location and very existence.

Akkadian Empire (Agade) (Mesopotamia)

The city of Agade appears to have existed from the twenty-fifth century BC, having been built up quite quickly from a village. It lay on the northern edges of Sumer, outside of the reach of the established city states of Sumer proper. Even so it cannot have been strong at first, having been conquered at least once prior to its takeover by Sargon around 2334 BC (or 2340 BC, as references differ).

What is referred to as the Akkad period begins officially with the reign of Sargon, although the later 'Old Babylonian' scribes which recorded its details clearly though that the earlier conquest by Lugalzaggesi of Umma should be included in this period. Sargon created an Akkadian empire which truly - administratively - unified Sumer (ki engi in Sumerian) and Agade for the first time ever.

Akkad (ki uri in Sumerian) was the region around the city of Agade, but it soon became the name for the entire empire. The 'Akkadian' name was also applied to the Semitic-based language here which was written down in a more flexible form of cuneiform than Sumerian could be. However, there were problems, not least because each of the formerly independent city states inside the empire resented the imposition of outside control. Revolts were common.

c.2334 - 2279 BC

Ruled for 56/55/54 years. Born c.2370 BC.

It is Sargon 'whose [probable] father, La'ibum (or Itti-Bel), was a gardener, the cupbearer of Ur-Zababa of Kish, [who] founded Agade'. He claims to be the first king to unite Mesopotamia (Sumer and Agade, plus a wide swathe of northern Mesopotamia), although Enshakushanna of Uruk has already achieved that in the mid-twenty-fifth century BC.

Sargon 'the Great', the warrior king of apparently humble origins, unified Sumer for (perhaps) the first time in recorded history through a series of campaigns and the defeat of the current holder of Sumer's equivalent of a high kingship

The name 'Sargon' has been regarded by modern scholars as an official name, usually taken to mean 'true, rightful king' (in Akkadian: sarru kenu). More recent analysis in the late twentieth century AD and early twenty-first has suggested that Sharrukan may instead be his birth name.

His origins and background are obscure, and he himself never names any paternal ancestors. His mother is claimed to be an en priestess (a leading role in one of the great city temples, usually a person of royal blood), but she sets him adrift on the Euphrates in a wicker basket (a story which is later rehashed for the Biblical Moses), after which is he found and raised by Aqqi the water-drawer.

His unnamed father is an outsider 'from the mountains' where the aromatic azupiranu herbs grow. But when he becomes king, 'the black-headed people [Sumerians], I did rule and govern'. Clearly not a Sumerian by paternal ancestry he could be closer in blood ties to the Lullubi hill people (for example) than the majority of Sumerians.

The start of his reign sees him defeating and capturing Lugalzaggesi of Uruk and Umma, claiming the empire and the kingship for his own and humiliating Lugalzaggesi by chaining him. Expanding his territory he defeats Lagash and Kazallu, invades Syria and the Levant four times, and campaigns against the Gutians, the Hatti, and Marhashi.

His exploits create a realm which stretches from Anatolia and the Mediterranean, covering the Amorites (Martu) on the western side of the Euphrates, up to Apum in northern Mesopotamia, and over to Elam in the east and Oman in the south. It is possibly he who is responsible for the destruction of Mari, while he also founds the new city of Gasur.

He also controls Mesopotamia to the north of Akkad, where the early Assyrian civilisation is achieving a level of sophistication of its own, and is enamoured of foreign goods, including those which are traded from the Indus Valley.

c.2278 - 2270 BC

Son. Ruled for 9/7/15 years. Assassinated.

Rimush re-conquers a rebellious Elam and Marhashi (in modern central Iran), and fights hard to retain the empire. He is largely successful but his exploits are ended when he is apparently assassinated.

An element of more recent scholarly thinking regards Rimush as being the same as Alusarsid, the minor ruler of early, pre-Sargon Agade, although he is still placed after Sargon in the reignal list. Bricks with his name imprinted on them are used in the reconstruction of the northern city of Nawar. The city of Shehna also becomes an Akkadian domain for a while.

c.2269 - 2255 BC

Older (or younger) brother. Ruled 15/7 years.  Assassinated.

Manishtushu renovates the Temple of Ishtar, and fights a sea battle against thirty-two kings who gather against him. Like his brother, he also seems to die through assassination.

c.2254 - 2218 BC

Son. Ruled for 56 years. Claimed god-like status.

Facing revolts from the start of his reign, Naram-Sin remains 'victorious in nine battles' because Ishtar is on his side. He conquers Ebla in Syria, defeats a coalition which is led by Kish, another coalition which is led by Uruk (when combined these coalitions include all of the major cities of Mesopotamia), and also attacks Nippur and the Hatti.

He places his son, Sharkalisharri, in control of Nippur and also conquers the hillfolk Lullabi in the north. With Akkad declining markedly (and especially so after the death of Naram-Sin), Elam and Marhashi declare their independence (although they are again re-conquered for a time).

It is possible that Uruk is a key player in the revolts, although Ur also features prominently. Lugalannemundu of Adab achieves a claim to fame by challenging Enheduanna, a possible daughter of Sargon of Akkad (metaphorically or literally), the appointed en priestess at Ur for the god Nanna.

She is forced out of the city, becoming the world's first-known female author when she pens the literary composition, Nin-me-šara. Lugalannemundu subsequently loses what appears to be a largely political battle of dominance in the south between the priesthood, the city gods, and public acceptance, and his power is diminished as a result.

In a more peaceful moment, Naram-Sin is able to marry his daughter, Tar'am-Agade, to the king of Urkesh which is perhaps located on the very edge of Akkadian-controlled territory in the north.

c.2217 - 2193 BC

Son. Ruled for 25/24/29 years. m dau of ruler of Marhashi?

c.2210 BC

Marhashi overruns Elam for a time, and unites eastern efforts in fighting against the Akkadian empire. A battle is fought between the two states near Akshak, at the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers.

One of the daughters of the ruler of Marhashi is married either to Shar-kali-sharri of Agade or his son, perhaps as a consequence of the battle, and as a sign of renewed ties of peace.

c.2193 BC

Great climatic changes are taking place which result in a mega-drought in the Far East's Longshan culture and in the Near East. The latter sees the decline of Sumerian 'Post-Diluvian' civilisation, the Akkadian empire, and the Egyptian 'Old Kingdom', plus the start of Egypt's 'First Intermediate' period, and flooding in Bronze Age Britain.

The Gutians sweep through southern Mesopotamia and overthrow both Elam and the Akkadian empire, either during Naram-Sin's reign or that of his son, ending Sumerian/Akkadian domination of the region.

The Akkadians survive but their power is minimal, their decline helped along by a series of very brief, non-dynastic rulers (see below). Both Sumer and Egypt endure a short (climate-induced) dark age at this time, and very little is known about post-imperial Agade itself until around 2100 BC.

Agade (Akkadian State) (Mesopotamia)

The city of Agade seems to have been founded in the twenty-fifth century BC. It was quickly expanded from a village on the northern edges of Sumer. Seized by Sargon 'the Great' around 2334 BC, he created an Akkadian empire which unified Sumer and Agade for the first time ever. Revolts were common though, as the Sumerian city states resented being dominated by this northern city.

In the end climatic change at the end of the third millennium BC doomed the empire. The rump Akkadian state possible suffered a civil war, and four kings reigned in brief spurts, surviving the Gutian invasion and managing to limp on for a further half a century while the Gutians presented themselves as the true inheritors of the Akkadian empire. In the meanwhile, the Khirbet Kerakware culture emerged in the now freed former Akkadian territories of Syria and Canaan.

c.2192 - ? BC

Ruled for ? years.

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? - 2190 BC

Ruled for ? years.

c.2190 BC

Dudu, who is probably the son of Shar-kali-sharri of about 2217 BC (see above), takes control of Agade and restores a semblance of stability to it and its immediate surroundings. The Akkadian empire may be dead but a small rump kingdom survives.

Cuneiform tablets rarely survive intact, so this Akkadian example which translates a hymn to the goddess Ishtar from Sumerian is especially valuable

c.2189 - 2169 BC

Son of the Akkadian Shar-kali-sharri? Ruled for 21 years.

c.2168 - 2154 BC

Son. Ruled for 15/18 years.

c.2154 BC

The small remaining Akkadian kingdom collapses and the city is reputedly destroyed, thoroughly, by the occupying Gutians. The king list claims it is Urnigin of Uruk who destroys the city and that the kingship is carried off there, but this may instead be a reference to Uruk regaining the advantage in terms of regional power.

The final Akkadians could be contemporaries of the kings of Uruk, and both are smashed by the Gutian hordes who are themselves expelled from Sumer circa 2120 BC by a later king of Uruk.

c.1897 BC

With the kings of the newly-founded Babylonian empire referring to themselves as 'king of Akkad', the city of Agade re-emerges as an Amorite city state within the empire, forming the capital of its northern division and sharing its ultimate fate.