Thrace had a heritage which matched that of
its south-westerly neighbours, the
Mycenaeans. Thracians were
allied to
Troy
during the Trojan War, although Homeric Thrace was vaguely defined. In
this period it encompassed a wide swathe of territory to the north of
Greece 'proper', stretching from the River Axios in the west, to the
Hellespont and the Black Sea in the east, and the Balkan Mountains in
the north. Sometimes Thrace could be used to define literally all the
territory to the north of Thessaly, incorporating Scythia and even
Macedonia.
In addition to the tribe that Homer called Thracians (in reality several
tribes, all very warlike), ancient Thrace was home to numerous other
Indo-European
tribes, all non-Greek speakers, such as the Bisaltes, Bistones,
Cicones, Edones, and Triballi, and all of them managed to remain rural
peoples, usually living in fortified hilltops. These Thracians may also
have shared many Indo-European cultural similarities with related groups
at the other end of the Black Sea, especially the
Cimmerians.
By around 900 BC these two groups appear to use the same style of horse
bits and cheek pieces, if not more, with an umbrella 'Thraco-Cimmerian'
label being applied to them by archaeologists. Like the Cimmerians and
Scythians, the Thracians were renowned for their horses and their skill
as mounted warriors.
Indications are that the Cimmerians became associated with the Thracians
around a large swathe of the western coast of the Black Sea, and
eventually merged with them (following their final defeat and break-up).
Carl Ferdinand Friedrich Lehmann-Haupt stated that the language of the
Cimmerians could have been a 'missing link' between Thracian and
Iranian.
Both of these were of Indo-European ancestry, so there was likely some
basic similarities between the languages. Tying archaeological evidence
to the Thraco-Cimmerians and their perceived migratory offshoots that
headed up the Danube towards the Alpine region can sometimes be dismissed
by scholars (although not all of them). When studying the hypothesis that
is based around this idea, Anne Kristiansen has focussed on a shift in
production centres from
Hungary to
Italy and
the Alpine region. The weight of evidence shows that there was a warrior
culture of the horse/wagon complex in the eighth century BC (such horse
and wagon peoples were typical of Pontic-Caspian steppe cultures, and they
persisted in the region for a surprisingly long time). From a central
European perspective, this particular culture followed the Danube to the
Hallstatt regions of the east -
Austria,
and perhaps
Bavaria,
these being the eastern limits of the core
Celtic
homeland. In successive waves from the ninth to the sixth centuries BC
they pushed further west before veering off to the north.
Ultimately, one branch followed the course of the River Elbe and a second
backtracked west from the headwaters of the Rhine, heading north-east to
the Elbe and then north into Jutland (where it theoretically formed, or
merged with the ancestors of, the
Cimbri).
The entire
Hallstatt C
complex was altered with new male prestige weapons and specialised horse
tack and wagons that were new to the region, and these were associated with
new ruling elites, especially in eastern central
Europe. Kristiansen
considers the influences to be not only Thraco-Cimmerian but also Scythian
(another nomadic horse-based group from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, some of
whom ventured into the
Transoxiana
region of Central Asia to become better known as the
Sakas).
Further support and expansion of this theory is shown on the Cimmerian page.
There is little specific order for the kings mentioned here, except by
reference to outside events, such as the Trojan War. Thracian unification
was not achieved until the fifth century and records are very sparse until
that time. Much of what was originally thought of as Thrace is now within
Bulgaria, and
Thracian influence was known to have extended into modern
Romania too, but the
south-western coastal districts still remain in modern
Greek hands while
the large south-eastern corner which includes Gallipoli and Constantinople
(Istanbul) is part of
Turkey.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson,
from The Civilisation of the East, Fritz Hommel (Translated by J H
Loewe, Elibron Classic Series, 2005), from Europe Before History,
Kristian Kristiansen, from Who were the Cimmerians, and where did they
come from? Anne Katrine Gade Kristensen (Royal Danish Academy of Sciences
and Letters, Hist-fil. Medd 57), from Celts and the Classical World,
David Rankin (1996), from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from
The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from The Illiad,
Homer (Translated by E V Rieu, Penguin, 1950), and from The Greek
Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest, Benjamin H Isaac.)
Thrax
Eponymous founder, and mythical son of the war-god
Ares.
Tegyrios
Greek mythological king of Thrace.
In Greek myth, the undatable Tegyrios of Thrace welcomes
the exiled Eumolpus to his kingdom. The king's daughter is married to
Ismarus, the son of Eumolpus, but Eumolpus subsequently plans to usurp the
throne and is banished. Following the death of Ismarus, Tegyrios forgives
his friend and makes Eumolpus his successor.
According to Greek legend, Phineas is the son of Agenor, king of
Tyre.
He and his four brothers, Cadmus, Cilix, Phoenix, and Thasus have
all departed their
Phoenician
home in search of their sister, Europa, who had been abducted by Zeus.
Phineas gives up his search in eastern Thrace, where he settles on the
western shores of the Black Sea and rules a city state of his own.
Phineas becomes the father to Bithynus, Mariandynus, Paphlagonus, and Thynus
(Bithynus and Thynus are adopted from one Odrysus, the eponymous namesake of
the later Thracian kingdom). The four each found kingdoms along the shores of
the Black Sea; Bithynia, Mariandyne,
Paphlagonia,
and Thynia.
There are two kings of early Thrace named Phineas, the first of
whom was a Phoenician while the second was rescued by Jason from
harpies, and it is the latter who is shown here
12th century BC
There are various tribes in Thrace at this time, and many of them take part
in the Trojan War, almost exclusively on the side of their near neighbour,
Troy.
While many of them are given specific tribal names or locations by Homer and
later Classical authors, others are simply 'of Thrace' and may represent a
more powerful and influential element in Thracian tribal society. For the
purposes of this list, in order to aid clarity, general Thracian kings are
shown primarily, while specifically named tribes or kingdoms are shown as
sub-kings. The Cicones are in green while the
Edones are in red.
fl c.1220 BC
Phineas
King of Thrace. Rescued from harpies by Jason of
Iolkos.
c.1220 BC
Jason of Iolkos is sent by his
uncle, Pelias, to recover the Golden Fleece. Jason himself is roughly datable
as he is of the generation that precedes the participants of the
Trojan
War. He gathers together the Argonauts, the crew of his ship, the
Argo, and makes the heroic voyage to
Kolkis to
secure the fleece. Along the way he and his crew experience various
adventures, including rescuing King Phineas from harpies.
Poltys appears to be a creation of post-Homeric authors. A son of Poseidon,
he rules the city of Poltyobria when Heracles pays him and his brother
Sarpedon a visit. The king welcomes him but Sarpedon does not, and Heracles
slays him on the beach. No relationship is given between Poltys and his
apparent successor, Acamas, but within two decades it is the latter who is
king of the city, which is renamed Aenus.
Troezenus
of the Cicones
Father of Euphemus. King of Ismara.
fl c.1183 BC
Polymestor
A Thracian king. Executed by Agamemnon.
c.1193 - 1183 BC
Polymestor is married to Ilione, eldest daughter of Priam of
Troy.
He betrays Priam's trust after the fall of Troy by murdering the king's
young son when the boy has been placed in his care along with an amount of
treasure. He is denounced by the boy's mother, Hecuba, and tried by
Agamemnon. Found guilty, his sons are killed by Trojan women and Hecuba
scratches out his eyes before he is led away by Agamemnon's men.
fl c.1183 BC
Acamas
/ Akamas
Son of
Eussorus. From Aenus in Thrace. Killed by Ajax.
c.1193 - 1183 BC
Acamas leads a contingent of Thracian warriors to the Trojan War on
the side of
Troy.
He is the mythical founder of the city of Aenus on the south-eastern
coastline near the mouth of the Hebrus. He is joined by his comrade
Peiros, son of Imbrasus, and Asius, along with Euphemus, son of King
Troezenus son of Ceas, and Rhesus, each with their own contingents
which represent some of the various tribes in Thrace. Asius is from
the city of Sestus, on the Thracian (northern) side of the Hellespont
and is therefore a member of the
Hyrtacidae,
who may indeed be Thracians.
fl c.1183 BC
Pylaemenes of the Eneti
From the Eneti tribe of Thracians. Killed at
Troy.
c.1193 - 1183 BC
Pylaemenes of the shaggy breast leads the
Paphlagonian
force to the Trojan War on the side of
Troy,
which includes contingents from Aegialus, Cromna, Cytorus, Erythini,
Sesamus, and from along the River Parthenius. A contingent of
Halizones
which also fights for Troy could be from Paphlagonia. Homer calls Odius
the chief of the Paphlagonians, placing them in north-eastern Anatolia.
It seems likely that the Halizones move into the region at the same time
that Paphlagonia emerges, displacing or subsuming the
Kaskans.
fl c.1183 BC
Peiros / Peirous
Son of Imbrasus. Comrade of Acamas.
fl c.1183 BC
Rhesus
Son of Eioneus. Joined the
Trojan War
later but did not fight.
fl c.1183 BC
Euphemus of the
Cicones
From the city of Ismara, Ismarus, on southern Thracian
coast.
fl c.1183 BC
Lycurgus of the
Edones
From between rivers Nestus and Strymon in southern Thrace.
Based
in the region of Mygdonia, Lycurgus dies violently, either by going insane,
killing his son, and then being executed by his people, or by accidentally
removing his own foot when attempting to cut down an ivy vine. Charops is
selected as his successor. He is the father of Oeagrus, although sources are
divided over this, with some claiming him as the son of King Pierus of
Pieria to the west.
fl c.1170s BC
Charops of the
Edones
Selected as the successor to the dead Lycurgus.
fl c.1170s BC
Oeagrus of the
Edones
Son of Charops or King Pierus of Pieria.
Orpheus
Son. Musician, poet and prophet in Greek myth.
fl c.1170s BC
Tereus
A Thracian king. Son of the war-god Ares.
Zalmoxis
c.1170s BC
Mycenaean-era Thrace fades
from history as the Mycenaeans themselves are eclipsed by the invading
Dorians. A dark age grips Greece for about four centuries until the rise
of the Classical city states. Thrace at this time is still viewed as a
wild, mountainous terrain populated by barbarous tribes.
c.900 BC
From around this date, rich, well-organised 'kingdoms' or 'chiefdoms'
develop in the Caucuses. They interact with civilisations to their south,
in Anatolia and
Mesopotamia, usually by raiding into their territory. Typical horse
bits and cheek-pieces of an early
Thraco-Cimmerian
type are found by archaeologists in the same region of the Caucuses.
c.800 - 700 BC
The
Thracians are driven out of the region of Mygdonia by the newly arriving
Macedonians, although they
are not the only ones suffering from population expansion. The kingdom of
Kolkis is also overrun by
Cimmerians
and Scythians in this century, and it disintegrates.
This image shows Cimmerians battling early Greeks - prior to
the advent of accepted 'Classical' Greece - with the mounted
Cimmerians warriors apparently being accompanied by their dogs
It seems to be around this time that the window for the 'Thraco-Cimmerian
Hypothesis' first opens. The Cimmerians and Scythians have suddenly
positioned themselves as a more powerful collection of tribes which are not
afraid of thundering around the Black Sea coast (on either side of the sea
itself) and waging war against established kingdoms. It is known that
Cimmerians later settle amongst the Thracian tribes, so to be that welcome
they must share some common points of interest, such as language or culture.
The common points would seem to be old
Urnfield
traditions in metalwork mixed with new Cimmerian influences from the
Caucuses. Could they already be mixing with Thracians now, with some
groups beginning to explore further along the River Danube to enter
regions that are controlled by the
Celts of
the
Hallstatt C culture? The weight of evidence shows that there is indeed a
warrior culture of the horse/wagon complex in the eighth century BC and also
a shift in production centres from
Hungary to
Italy and
the Alpine region. This would match well with a Thraco-Cimmerian migration
along the Danube (whether in person or by osmosis through neighbouring
migratory groups).
In successive waves from the ninth to the sixth centuries BC these migrating
warrior groups push west towards the headwaters of the Danube before veering
off to the north. Ultimately, one branch follows the course of the River
Elbe and a second backtracks west from the headwaters of the Rhine, heading
north-east to the Elbe and then north into Jutland (where it theoretically
forms, or merges with the ancestors of, the
Cimbri).
7th century BC
During this century the
Cimmerians
and Scythians seem to be wandering over vast distances as warring groups
and mercenaries. During the early seventh century they also attack
Lydia
and Greek coastal cities on the Aegean, and Herodotus states that they are
later expelled from there. Place names in Scythia show that Cimmerians are
also present in this region at some point. Further involvement, this time
when they are allied to the Thracian tribes of the Edoni and Threres,
supports a close social and cultural relationship with at least some
Thracians, which is confirmed by archaeological discoveries. The Cimmerian
presence in Anatolia is archaeologically much more tenuous, probably
revealing the briefness of their presence here.
c.660 BC
Fritz Hommel has stated that one Tugdamme of the
Cimmerians
must be an ancestor of the later Cimmerian ruler, Sandakhshatra. He
identifies this ruler as Cyaxares of the
Medians,
implying that Tugdamme is Phraortes, which seems far less likely than the
Sandakhshatra connection. Instead, the name Tugdamme strikes Edward Dawson
as being Celtic,
with an automatically reconfiguration to the Celtic 'Togodumnos' being an
easy leap. Given the possibility that it may be Thraco-Cimmerians who
influence the Celtic progression from
Hallstatt to
La Tène culture
during the proposed migration west from the Black Sea, Tugdamme could be
a name type that is adopted by the Celts from the Cimmerian warrior elite
and is afterwards rendered as Togodumnos (or variants).
542 - 512 BC
There
is a period of
Persian overlordship in
Macedonia, although
the Macedonian King Amyntas is still able to enter into an alliance with
Hippias, tyrant of
Athens.
This could be the satrapy known as Skudra into which Macedonia is merged
during this period, which falls under the overall authority of the satrapy
of
Sparda. Macedonia itself remains a vassal until it manages to
break free under the rule of Alexander I. (The source of the name 'Skudra'
is 'Saka' or 'Scythian', both themselves variations of the same thing -
Indo-European tribesmen of the Pontic-Caspian steppe.)
513/12 - c.479 BC
Thrace south of the Danube is conquered by the
Persians and held for about fifty years, possibly until they are forced
out of Macedonia
by Alexander I. Until then, King Amyntas of Macedon is its local governor,
with this minor satrapy being subjoined to the great satrapy of
Sparda.
Colchis is held for about the same length of time as part of the satrapy
of
Armina.
Xerxes removes the governor of the former Greek colony of Doriskos in
Thrace. a man who had been installed by his father, Darius. He is replaced
with his own man, Maskames. Following the evacuation of Xerxes and his great
army, many of the
Persian governors are defeated by Greeks and expelled. One exception is
Maskames. He holds out bravely, resisting all attempts to dislodge him. The
only other local governor to do so is Boges of Eion, but he faces his
eventual defeat in 475 BC by walking into the flames of his burning command.
Just how long Doriskos holds out is open to interpretation. Herodotus
records 'many attempts' by the Greeks to reclaim it, which must cover
several years, but some opinion goes so far as to say that the Greeks
never recover the city. Instead it is eventually taken over by Thracians.
The Thracians themselves could have been forced to an extent to unify
under Persian occupation of the region. By the middle of the century
they have formed the Odrysian
kingdom. Other tribes do still exist, and probably in independence,
notably the Bessoi,
but they are little-known hill tribes that play no real part in the
main history of the region.
Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace
The Odrysian (Odrysae or Odrusai) kingdom was a union of over forty Thracian tribes
that endured between the fifth and third centuries BC. It consisted largely of
territory within the traditional boundaries of ancient Thrace, incorporating present-day
Bulgaria,
and at times spreading into parts of
Romania, northern
Greece and
the European part of
Turkey. Its former
capital was Uscudama or Odrysia which is now the city of Edirne, in European Turkey.
It was the first true Thracian state under a single ruler, adopting Greek language
and customs, although not encompassing all Thracian tribes. However, the remaining
tribes may have submitted as sub-kingdoms to Thrace's possible high king. It would
certainly explain the proliferation of multiple rulers during the kingdom's existence.
The former fortified residence of the Odrysian high kings was uncovered by
archaeologists in 2010. It is located on the Kozi Gramadi mount on the Sredna
Gora mountain, in the village of Starosel, close to the resort town of Hissar
in central Bulgaria. It is the only Odrysian royal residence to be discovered
to date. It is generally assumed that the Thracians lived a relatively rough
and ready lifestyle, although this discovery is causing something of a rethink.
(Information by Peter Kessler.)
450 - 431 BC
Teres
/ Tires I
Son of Odryses? Founded the kingdom. Died on campaign.
431 BC
Under Teres, responsible for first uniting many of Thrace's tribes to create the kingdom,
and Sitalces, who reinforces the allegiance of some of the tribes to him as
king (or high king), the kingdom reaches its height. It stretches from the
coast of the Black Sea in the east to the Danube in the north (homeland of
the Tribali tribe), and the River Strymon basin to the west. Relations
between the tribes that make up the kingdom are regularly shifting, making
controlling them an uncertain process that ebbs and flows over time, but
this seems to be one rare point of almost total Thracian unification (with
even the Bessoi being subjugated).
The Triballi, a tribe occupying a large swathe of territory in the north of
Thrace, prove to be particularly troublesome, and it may be this tribe that
Teres is campaigning against when he dies. The tribe is also responsible for
the death of his son, Sitalces.
431 - 424 BC
Sitalces / Sitalkes
Son. Forced defecting tribes to acknowledge him.
c.450 - 430 BC
Sitalces gradually enlarges his subordinate territories on the Maritsa river
valley and transforms the region of the
Bessoi plains into a territory that
is controlled by him.
c.431 - c.430 BC
Sporadokos
Brother. Sub-king.
429 BC
Against the backdrop of the Second Peloponnesian War, the
Macedonian king,
Perdiccas, is opposed by the future Amyntas II. Amyntas seeks the support of Sitalces
in Thrace, but Perdiccas mediates with Seuthes, his son, to obtain peace between the
Thracians and Macedonia. Amyntas is forced to wait for his accession in Macedonia.
425 - 424 BC
Sadokos
Son of Sitalces.
424 - 396 BC
Seuthes I
Nephew, son of Sporadakos. Died due to illness.
405 - 391 BC
Seuthes II
Grandson of Teres. Self-proclaimed king.
Recognised in 396.
c.420 - 380 BC
The kingdom appears to fragment to an extent due to internal conflict,
probably on a tribal basis. Central authority is weakened and at least one
sub-kingdom is formed, although this is probably more a recognition of an
existing division that may otherwise threaten to break up the kingdom completely.
As a result, the ability of the Odrysians to present a unified fighting
force is diminished, and the succeeding king,
Amadocus, can do little to prevent the loss of several territories and
severe trouble being caused by the Triballi tribe in the north.
396 - 390 BC
Amadocus I / Amatokos I / Medokos?
Son of Teres. Lost many territories.
396 BC
Amadocus recognises Seuthes II as his sub-king, allowing him to rule the
southern coastal districts along the shore of the Aegean. How much this
recognition is due to a situation that has already been established is
unclear, and the two are recorded as being frequently at odds with one
another until they are reconciled by
Athenian General Thrasybulus.
390 - 384 BC
Hebryzelmis / Euryzelmes?
Brother. Killed by Cotys.
390 - 384 BC
Maesades
Father of Seuthes II. Sub-king? Successor to Seuthes II?
384 BC
It is possible that the accession of Cotys I ends the divisions within the
Odrysian kingdom. Maesades disappears and there seems to be no successor to
him as sub-king, suggesting a once-more unified state.
384 - 359 BC
Cotys
I / Kotys I
Son of Seuthes II. Murdered by students of Plato.
c.384 - 380 BC
Amyntas III of
Macedonia
establishes good relations with Cotys, something which presages even closer
relations with Philip II of Macedonia during the later years of Cotys' own
reign.
375 BC
The
ever-troublesome Triballi rebel again, despite Cotys having helped their
king, Hales, against Abdera. One of the causes is the lack of luxury goods
from the more prosperous south. The rebellion is ended by Cotys rebuilding
the city of Pistiros.
c.370s BC
Construction of a royal fortified residence is believed to begin during
the reign of Cotys I, located on the Kozi Gramadi mount in the Sredna Gora
mountain, in the village of Starosel (later to form part of
Bulgaria).
The remains of the tower that guarded the royal residence at
Kozi Gramadi, uncovered by Bulgaria's National History Museum in
2011
359 BC
Cotys
makes an alliance with Philip II of
Macedonia
shortly before he is murdered. His successor, Cersobleptes (Kersouleptes, or
even Kersebleptes), rules a Thrace that
still appears to be very tribal, with multiple kings now again ruling alongside
him, perhaps as sub-kings, with him performing the role of high king. Cersobleptes
is frequently found to be in opposition to his sub-kings and relatives, and attempts
more then once to reunify the kingdom.
Chersonese is today known as the Gallipoli Peninsula, while Maroneia is a village
and a region in lower eastern Thrace on the Aegean coast. This corner of the Thracian
kingdom appears to become semi-independent under Amadocus II.
359 - 341 BC
Cersobleptes / Kersouleptes
Son. Young king who was advised by Charidemus.
359 - ? BC
Charidemus
Euboean adventurer who was the brains behind the throne.
359 - 352 BC
Berisades /
Thirisades?
Probable brother of Cersobleptes. In Strimos. Died.
359 - 351 BC
Amadocus II /
Amatokos II
Probable brother of Cersobleptes. In Chersonese & Maroneia.
358 - 347? BC
Cetriporis /
Ketriporis
Son of Berisades. In Strimos.
352 - 346 BC
Philip II of
Macedonia makes a successful
expedition into Thrace, gaining ascendancy until about 346 BC. Over the
course of the following three years the long-reigning Cersobleptes throws
off Macedonian control. It seems that he still either shares power with
multiple minor kings (such as the
Bessoi, who refuse to submit), or is
over-king of the entire region, which is still highly tribal.
351 - 342 BC
Teres / Tires II
Son of Amadocus. In Chersonese & Maroneia.
351 - ? BC
Skostodokos
Son of Berisades. In Strimos?
340s BC
During the reign of Teres II, work on the royal fortified residence on
the Kozi Gramadi mount is completed.
343 - 341 BC
Having lost control of Thrace to Cersobleptes between 346-343 BC,
Philip II of
Macedonia marches again
on the kingdom and reduces Cersobleptes to the status of a vassal. He also
ends the reign of Teres II in the south-eastern corner of Thrace. Demosthenes says that Philip spends eleven nightmarish months in the
winter of 342 BC fighting the Thracians who inhabit the mountains. Southern
Thrace is completely conquered by 341 BC.
c.341 - 300 BC
Seuthes III
Direct descendant of Teres I. Odrysian client king.
336 BC
Alexander the Great puts down the Thracian rebellion, gaining submission
from all the tribes, and they become part of the
Greek empire.
The traditional Thracian border with Macedonia is shifted from the River
Struma to the River Mesta. Thracian troops accompany Alexander when he crosses the Hellespont
which links Thrace to Asia Minor. Seuthes III appears to retain his throne
but probably only as a client king under Macedonian domination.
331 BC
A
Greek satrap is appointed, and it can be assumed that, although the
information to confirm it may have been lost, the Greeks remain solidly in
command of Thrace. Seuthes retains his position on a power-sharing basis
with Lysimachus until 300 BC.
325 - 313 BC
Within this period, Seuthes founds an Hellenistic city called Seuthopolis on
the site of an existing settlement which serves as his new capital. It is
located near Kazanlak, in the Stara Zagora Province of what is now central
Bulgaria.
It is the only city built in Thrace by the natives, aside from the royal
palace on the Sredna Gora mountain. Unfortunately, the ruins of Seuthopolis are now at the bottom of
the Koprinka reservoir.
323 BC
Following Alexander the Great's death and the seizure of Thrace by
Lysimachus, Seuthes continues to
rule in parallel with him. Sole Thracian rule is re-established in 214 BC
following the destruction of the
Celtic kingdom and the restoration of an
Odrysian kingdom.
Argead Dynasty in Thrace
Small Nav - Persian & Greek Empires
@import "../css/history_substyles.css";
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of
Macedonia who
reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his two
successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic sections.
Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern
Persia
in 331-328 BC, the
Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's death in 323 BC and the
subsequent regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors held
no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals who really held control
of Alexander's empire. Following that latter period and during the course of
several wars, Thrace was left in the hands of the
Lysimachian empire from 305 BC.
Wanting to make his mark with a conquest of some kind, Zopyrion assembles
30,000 men and marches into Scythia. He besieges Olbia, which is a colony of
Miletus (itself already in Alexander's hands since 334 BC). The siege fails
after the Olbians free their slaves to add with the defence, and Zopyrion's
navy forces may also be battered by a great storm. He retreats in disorder
and his forces are picked off by Scythian raids and then destroyed by the
Danubian Getae and Thracian Triballi. Zopyrion himself is killed.
During
the Fourth War of the Diadochi, the diadochi generals proclaim themselves
king of their respective domains following a similar proclamation by Antigonus
the year before. In 302 BC, Lysimachus enters western Asia Minor, governed as
part of Greater
Phrygia, and gains (or regains) control of much of it. Following
the death of Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, his territories are
carved up by the other diadochi. As part of his
Lysimachian empire, Lysimachus gains Ionia,
Lydia,
Phrygia, and the southern Black Sea coast of Asia Minor.
Lysimachian Empire 305 - 279 BC
Small Nav - Persian & Greek Empires
@import "../css/history_substyles.css";
Lysimachus was appointed to help control
Phrygia and Thrace upon Alexander's death, probably governing in parallel
with the last Ordrysian king in
the latter. Lysimachus' focus was elsewhere, however, as he fought in the
various Wars of the Diadochi (the successors, Alexander's former generals).
In 314 BC he joined Ptolemy
(Egypt),
Cassander (Macedonia),
and Seleucus
(Babylonia)
in the Third War of the Diadochi against the
Empire of Antigonus. When terms were concluded in 311 BC, Lysimachus had
managed to survive with his domains intact. When Antigonus proclaimed himself
king in 306 BC, all the other surviving generals followed suit, confirming
the dismantling of the Greek empire into various regional domains.
305 - 281 BC
Lysimachus
Greek
general and former satrap of Thrace
(323-305 BC).
305 - 301 BC
During the Fourth War of the Diadochi, the diadochi generals proclaim
themselves king of their respective domains following a similar proclamation
by Antigonus the year before. In 302 BC, Lysimachus enters western Asia Minor,
governed as part of
Greater Phrygia,
and gains (or regains) control of much of it. Following the death of
Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, his territories are carved
up by the other diadochi. Lysimachus gains Ionia,
Lydia,
Phrygia, and the southern Black Sea coast of Asia Minor. Lydia appears to
fall under the control of the
Seleucids at some point afterwards.
This silver tetradrachm was issued by Lysimachus, and shows the
deified head of Alexander the Great on the obverse, with the
goddess Athena on the reverse
300 BC
The Odrysian co-rule of Thrace
possibly comes to an end, probably upon the death of Seuthes III. The
Odrysian throne may remain vacant for another two decades or so while
Lysimachus controls the region directly. An alternate possibility is that
Odrysian sub-rule continues,
dividing in two under Macedonian domination.
288 BC
The combined forces of Pyrrhus (of
Epirus), Ptolemy (of
Egypt)
and Lysimachus oblige Demetrius I of
Macedonia to leave
his kingdom. He passes into Asia and attacks Lysimachus' provinces but famine
and plague destroys much of his forces and he is abandoned by his troops on
the field of battle, surrendering to the founder of the
Seleucids, Seleucus. Lysimachus and Pyrrhus share Macedonia between them.
282 - 281BC
Lysimachus' general, Philetaerus, takes control of the city of
Pergamum,
with his successors forming a kingdom centred around it. Lysimachus dies in
battle at Corupedium against the
Seleucid empire the following year. His death appears to pave the way
for a restoration of the Odrysian kingdom in Thrace within a year or so.
Widow of Lysimachus.
Remarried to Ptolemy II Ceraunus.
281 BC
Ptolemy assassinates Seleucus in 281 BC and rushes back to Lysimacheia in
Thrace to have himself proclaimed king by the Macedonian army. Safe in his
rule of both the Lysimachian empire and
Macedonia,
and having his main rival, the
Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas bottled up in his own capital,
Ptolemy kills Arsinoë's two sons for conspiracy against him and Arsinoë
flees to
Egypt to seek protection from her brother.
279 BC
Ptolemy is killed during an invasion of
proto-GalatianCelts which begins
just the year after his accession. Greece is plunged into anarchy as the
Celts invade further into Greece, and only the Aetolians seem to be able
to take the lead in defending Greek territory.
278 - 277 BC
Greece is still suffering from the invasion by
Celts. Following a victory at Thermopylae,
they are defeated by a force led by the Aetolians at Delphi in 278 BC, and then suffer a
crushing defeat at the hands of the
Antigonid King Antigonus II in 277 BC. The Celts retreat from Greece and pass
through Thrace to enter into Asia Minor to found the
Galatian kingdom. Antigonus
II is able to claim the throne of
Macedonia, combining Thrace with the kingdom, which he is able to pass onto his
son when he dies at the grand old age of eighty.
In the east of Thrace, the Galatian kingdom of Tilis is formed by Celts,
while large areas of Thrace are drawn into the reformed
Odrysian kingdom.
Although probably still subject to Macedonia to an extent, the region
recovers a certain level of its former independence in terms of internal
affairs.
Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace (Restored)
The Odrysian kingdom originally started out as a union of Thracian tribes
that endured between the fifth and third centuries BC. It consisted largely
of present-day
Bulgaria, and parts of
Romania,
northern Greece
and
Turkey. Its capital was Uscudama or Odrysia (modern Edirne, in European
Turkey). The kingdom was subdued by the
Macedonians in 341 BC, and remained a subject of the subsequent
Lysimachian empire.
Some sources give a break of around twenty years between the death of the last of the
Odrysian kings and the kingdom's restoration under Odroes around 280 BC.
By that time the Lysimachian empire had merged with the kingdom of
Macedonia, and Greek rule was far less immediate. This allowed the Thracians
to regain an element of independence, although they may still have had to
pay nominal allegiance to the Macedonian kings, and they had lost sections
of eastern Thrace to the Celtic kingdom of Tilis.
Other versions maintain continuity from Seuthes III (c.341-300 BC) and
supply a completely different series of names. As this sequence is obviously
a continuation of the kingdom, the names are shown here in black, while the
alternative sequence begun by Odroes is shown in red.
The latter may be due to the existence of a rival Thracian kingdom, but it
is hard to tell. Details about the whole of Thrace are very sparse for this
period.
Reignal numbering continues from the previous Odrysian kingdom. To make the
list more easy to understand, the two competing lines have been split into
two columns here.
300 - 280 BC
Cotys
II / Kotys II
Son of Seuthes III. Ruled a continuous
Odrysian kingdom.
280 BC
Although no details appear to be available for the death of Cotys II, his
death may spark a crisis for Thrace. A separate line of rulers now appears
(shown here in red), suggesting either legal a
division of the kingdom or a rebellion that founds a new Thracian state.
280 - ? BC
Raizdos
Son?
c.280 - 273 BC
Odroes
First king of a rival, splinter, or vassal Thracian
kingdom?
c.280 - 273 BC
Adaeus
Co-ruler or sub-king?
278 - 277 BC
Greece is still suffering from the invasion by
Celts. They are
defeated by a force led by the Aetolians at Thermopylae and Delphi in 278
BC, and then suffer a crushing defeat at the hands of the
Antigonid King Antigonus II in 277
BC. The Celts retreat from Greece and pass through Thrace to enter into Asia
Minor to found the Galatian kingdom. Antigonus II is able to claim the throne of
Macedonia, combining Thrace with the kingdom, which he is able to pass
onto his son when he dies at the grand old age of eighty.
The kingdom of Tilis was formed in eastern Thrace,
now Tulovo in Bulgaria, in a river valley surrounded by
mountains
In the east of Thrace, the Galatian kingdom of Tilis is formed by Celts,
while large areas of Thrace are drawn into the (reformed) Odrysian kingdom.
Although probably still subject to Macedonia to an extent, the region
recovers a certain level of its former independence in terms of internal
affairs.
fl c.275 BC
Skostodos
Co-ruler or sub-king?
273 BC
The Celts invade Thrace again, savaging the Thracian kingdom and forcing the
aristocracy to escape to the Greek colonies bordering the Black Sea,
which include
Pontus. The kingdom of
Galatia is created in Anatolia by the victorious
Celts.
fl c.265 BC
Orsoaltios
fl c.260 BC
Kersivaulos
fl c.260 BC
Cotys III / Kotys III
Son of Raizdos.
fl c.250 BC
Tires III
240 - 215 BC
Rascouporis I / Rhescuporis I
Son of Cotys III.
fl c.235 BC
Adeos / Adaeus
230 BC
The Thracians lose any remaining control of
Pergamum that they might possess (although true authority probably still
rests with
Macedonia), when the
Lysimachian governor there proclaims himself king.
214 BC
The Thracians eject the
Celtic kingdom from Greece and fully restore
Thracian rule. Thrace appears to be all but independent in every sense at
this time, although there seems to be a short break in the rule of the main
Thracian kingdom. This may give Pleuratus the opportunity to proclaim
himself, or be proclaimed, king, perhaps in opposition to Seuthes IV.
213 - 175 BC
Seuthes IV
Son of Rascouporis I or Tires III. Or 215-190 BC.
213 - 208 BC
Pleuratus
Thracian king who attacked Tilis.
212 BC
Pleuratus attacks the city of Tilis, destroying it and ejecting the last of
the Celts
of Galatia
from Greece (today the
Bulgarian village of Tulovo, in Stara Zagora Province, stands on the
site).
202 BC
Philip V of
Macedonia conquers the kingdom and permanently appends it to his own
kingdom. It remains subject to Macedonia until the final fall of that
kingdom.
Further expansion of the
Pergamum kingdom takes place when the Thracians are occupied. However,
this tough mountainous terrain is too difficult to hold, and within three years,
Macedonian supremacy has been restored.
Two successor kingdoms appear to form at this time, the
Canites and
Odrissae. Both seem to be more
tribal than the Odysian kingdom has become, suggesting that Pergamum's short
period of occupation destroys or damages Thracian organisation to the extent
that the kingdom fragments. However, the first king of the Odrissae is Cotys
IV, probable son of Seuthes IV, suggesting that the kingdom is divided
amongst offspring, or that the Odrysian throne is usurped and Cotys IV
refuses to acknowledge it, forming his own splinter state in the process.
179 BC
Philip V of
Macedonia invites in a massive contingent of warriors from the tribe of
the Bastarnae which resides
to the north of the Danube. Apparently they are long-time allies of his and
are needed to help him defeat the aggressive Dardanii. Unfortunately, things
go very wrong and, for a time, the Bastarnae pillage Thracian lands, although
they are checked by Thracians who are on the defensive.
172 BC
What happens to the possible two kingdoms at this point is unknown. The
sequence of dates would suggest that the otherwise unknown,
red, line of kings shown above emerges supreme,
but it may be that Tires V ascends the throne as the successor both to Tires
IV (his possible father) and Abrupolis to form a united, single formal
Thracian kingdom (although just how united it can be with the
Canites and Odrissae existing
alongside it in Thrace is unknown).
172 - 148 BC
Tires V
Sole, and last, king of the formal Odrysian kingdom.
168 BC
The Third Macedonian War sees the
Macedonian king, Perseus,
enjoying some initial success but then being forced to surrender following defeat
at the First Battle of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC.
Roman rule of
Macedonia and Thrace follows
the defeat, although several Thracian revolts occur over subsequent years.
149 - 148 BC
Andriscus invades Macedonia
from Thrace in 149 BC and defeats an army under the
Roman praetor, Publius
Juventius. Then he proclaims himself King Philip VI of Macedonia. In the
following year, his popular uprising is put down by the legions at the
Second Battle of Pydna, and they establish a permanent residence in Greece.
The Achaean League of Greek states rises up against this presence and is
swiftly destroyed. Rome also destroys
Corinth as an object
lesson and annexes Greece, including Macedonia and Thrace.
148 BC
Roman occupation of
Thrace begins with a large production run of silver tetradrachms. The fate
of Tires V is unknown but it seems possible that he is either killed during
the uprising of Andriscus or is subsequently removed from office. Rome
assumes direct control, ending the formal kingdom, but not the tribal states
of the
Canites and
Odrissae.
Tribal Kingdom of the Canites
The formal
Odrysian kingdom appears to have broken up in the early second century
BC, although it survived in some form until
Roman
annexation in 148 BC. The possibility is that the occupation of Thrace by
Pergamum for three years had destroyed or damaged Thracian organisation
to such an extent that the kingdom was terminally weakened. Two tribal
kingdoms appeared alongside it, probably located more to the north, in the
mountain uplands. Of the Canites and
Odrissae, the former is almost completely
obscure after its first two rulers. The names of both kings appear to be
suspiciously close to two of the Odrissae, raising the possibility that the
Canites and Odrissae were one and the same.
This obscure tribal territory eventually falls to
Rome
(if it even exists as a territory in its own right), possibly in 148
BC when it formally occupies Thrace. The tribal kingdom of the
Odrissae continues.
Tribal Kingdom of the Odrissae
The formal
Odrysian kingdom appears to have broken up in the early second century
BC, although it survived until
Roman annexation in 148
BC. The possibility is that the occupation of Thrace by
Pergamum for three years had destroyed or damaged Thracian organisation
to such an extent that the kingdom was terminally weakened. Two tribal
kingdoms appeared alongside it, probably located more to the north, in the
mountain uplands. Of the Canites and
Odrissae, the former is almost completely obscure after its first two rulers.
Another tribe, the Bessoi,
had already existed for some time, but this was a minor group and almost
totally obscure.
The latter was conquered at about the same time as the formal Odrysian kingdom,
when Rome invaded Thrace, but the Odrissae also exist alongside the formal
kingdom for over thirty years. Their first king was Cotys IV, probable son
of Seuthes IV, suggesting that the kingdom was divided amongst offspring,
or that the Odrysian throne was usurped and Cotys IV refused to acknowledge
it, forming his own splinter state in the process. Reignal numbering continues
from the previous Odrysian kingdom.
(Information by Peter Kessler and Edward Dawson, with additional information
from Continuity and Innovation in Religion in the Roman West, R
Haeussler, Anthony C King & Phil Andrews, from Liber Prodigiorum,
Julius Obsequens, from Periocha, Livy, from Res Gestae, Ammianus
Marcellinus, from Valerius Maximus, Pseudo-Quintilian, and Paulus Orosius, from
Epitome of Roman History, Florus, from Historia Romana, Cassius
Dio, from Flavius Eutropius, from Strategemata, Frontinius, from
'Breviary', Sextus Festus, from St Jerome Emiliani (Hieronymus), from
Getica, Jordanes, from The Celts in Macedonia and Thrace, G
Kazarov, from The Origin of the Gundestrup Cauldron, Antiquity, Vol 61,
1987, A K Bergquist & T Taylor, from The Getae in Southern Dobruja
in the Period of the Roman Domination: Archaeological Aspects, S Torbatov,
and from External Links:
Journal of Celtic
Studies in Eastern Europe and Asia-Minor, and
Scordisci Swords From Northwestern Bulgaria.)
The Third Macedonian War sees the
Macedonian king,
Perseus, enjoy some initial success but then is forced to surrender following
defeat at the First Battle of Pydna on 22 June 168 BC.
Roman rule of
Macedonia and Thrace
follows the defeat, although several Thracian revolts occur over subsequent
years.
The treasures of the Odrysian kingdom would in part have been
inherited by the Odrissae
fl c.168 BC
Diygyles / Diegylos / Dyegilos / Diagylis
Son? Probably m Apama of Bithynia. Or 150-140 BC.
fl c.168/166 BC
Biz /
Byzas / Byses
Or fl c.148/146 BC as Beithys.
163 - ? BC
Sothimes
Son of Diygyles?
c.149 BC
Tires VI
Last of the Odrissae kings?
149 - 148 BC
Andriscus invades Macedonia from Thrace in 149 BC and defeats an army under the
Roman praetor, Publius
Juventius. Then he proclaims himself King Philip VI of Macedonia. In the
following year, his popular uprising is put down by the legions at the
Second Battle of Pydna, and they establish a permanent residence in Greece.
The Achaean League of Greek states rises up against this presence and is
swiftly destroyed. Rome also destroys
Corinth as an object
lesson and annexes Greece, including Macedonia and Thrace.
148 BC
Roman
occupation of Thrace begins with a large production run of silver
tetradrachms. The fate of Tires V is unknown but it seems possible that he
is either killed during the uprising of Andriscus or is subsequently removed
from office. Rome assumes direct control, ending the formal kingdom, but not
the tribal states of the Canites
and Odrissae.
c.148/146 BC
Beithys
Ruled? Or c.168/166 BC as Biz.
146 BC
The four Greek client republics are dissolved and officially incorporated into the
Roman province of
Macedonia,
which also includes
Epirus, Thessaly, and areas of
Illyria, Paeonia, and Thrace. With these regions under tighter control, Rome
is free to take a tougher line against the recalcitrant Scordisci tribe in
the Balkans and the various Thracian tribes to the east of Greece.
135 BC
The peace is broken by the
Romans who launch a fresh
attack on the Scordisci in Thrace. As Livy mentions, the
Celts are defeated
this time, by Praetor Marcus Cosconius. This is painted as a Roman victory,
but it is one that should lead directly to the annexation of fresh
territory. However, Roman writers are notably silent on the aftermath,
raising the possibility that the victory is instead another stalemate.
115 BC
Following the scare of 119 BC, former consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus is
sent to Macedonia.
Eburnus has established his reputation as a strict disciplinarian (and later goes
so far as to execute his own son for 'immorality' in 104 BC, for which he is
prosecuted). Plans are drawn up for the
Roman conquest of Thrace, probably
by him (according to Orosius, Pseudo-Quintilian, and Valerius Maximus). As part
of this strategy a Roman fortress is established at Heracleae Sintica (modern
Rupite, near Petritch in south-western
Bulgaria) with a garrison
of two cohorts commanded by one Lucullus. Located on the strategic Struma river
valley, and possibly already inside
Celtic territory, it is the only practical
route for moving a large military force into western Thrace. The invasion begins
in 114 BC, led by Consul Gaius Porcius Cato.
109 BC
Retaliation is delivered by
Rome when a
Roman army enters Thrace under
the command of Minucius Rufus. According to several Roman writers and also an
inscription at Delphi (which is probably ordered by Rufus himself), both the
Scordisci and the Thracian
Bessoi tribe
are defeated. If true it would be the first Scordisci defeat since 135 BC, or even
earlier. The attack targets not only barbarian military means but, in a change to
previous encounters, targets the civilian populations in a rather brutal manner.
Rome triggers a pattern of increasing atrocities in its war against the tribes
in Thrace and the Balkans.
Interestingly, the campaign ignores the perils of the Struma Valley and instead
proceeds along the much more open River Hebrus river valley (the modern Maritsa),
which is much more suitable for a Roman army. It also seems to be aimed at the
heart of the territory controlled by the previously peaceful Bessoi tribe,
although it happily involves any other tribes, especially the Scordisci. As the
Bessoi live along the Hebrus they make an ideal target without the involvement
of dangerous forays away from the river valley. No territory is gained as a
result of the raid, but it lays down a marker for the future.
To take the gloss off the campaign's success, during their homeward march a large
part of the Roman army drowns when ice on the river breaks underfoot. The attack
on the Bessoi also turns them into one of Rome's most bitter enemies in Thrace,
and forces them into forging closer links with the
Celts in Thrace.
109 - 90 BC
While no further campaigns appear to be mounted by
Rome
during the closing years of the second century BC, the Scordisci and their Thracian
allies, especially the Maedi, continue to attack Roman
Macedonia.
These attacks continue into the early years of the first century BC.
Archaeology shows a dramatic increase in the levels of La Tène
militarisation during this period, as Scordisci society gears up to face the
continuing conflict.
This photo displays material gathered from the Scordisci warrior
burial at Montana in north-western Bulgaria
The constant warfare is also reflected in mass burials
such as the one found at Slana Voda, where a large number of
Celtic battle
casualties are buried at the same time. Hoards of Hellenic and Roman plunder
are notable from the same period, especially in the form of coins, alongside
Celtic issues which often depict attacks against Roman resources. Finds also
include a dense collection of La Tène swords in sites between the rivers Timok and Iskar in modern north-western
Bulgaria - the largest concentration
of such Celtic materials in Europe. Rome has sown the seeds of warfare and
is now reaping the whirlwind of endless attacks by the new enemies it has
made.
c.100 BC
After almost half a century of
Roman
rule, a new Thracian tribal kingdom appears in the region. It is not clear
if the Astean kingdom is a vassal of
Rome or is entirely independent. Its first ruler is possibly the son of Beithys, one of the last kings of the Odrissae.
c.90 - c.80 BC
Amodokos IV
Rebel during the great 'barbarian' attack?
90 BC
Rome's
forces in the Balkans have increasingly been feeling the strain of the
constant attacks on them. Now the dam bursts under the weight of yet another
combined attack by the Scordisci and Maedi. The Roman historian Florus
provides a detailed description of events. The Scordisci and Maedi,
supported by the Thracian Denteletes and by the Dardanii, swarm through
Dalmatia,
Macedonia,
and Thessaly, reaching as far as
Epirus on
the Adriatic. They vent the frustration of years of warfare against the
Romans by freely destroying and plundering, although Florus paints a
typically pro-Roman picture of barbarian atrocities, citing the Scordisci
especially as 'the cruellest of all the Thracians... and to their strength
was added cunning as well'. The attack deprives Rome of control over many
areas of the Balkans and northern Greece.
85 - 84 BC
Rome
is finally able to respond to their ongoing disaster in the Balkans and
Greece. Sula leads an army against the Scordisci, apparently 'punishing'
them according to Roman writers. Certainly prisoners are treated cruelly,
with fire and sword being used to inflict severe cruelties upon them (so
says Flores). However, Sula merely serves to further fan the flames. As
soon as he leaves for Asia, the
Celts and Thracians
overrun the southern Balkans and northern Greece and penetrate the
Peloponnese. They reach Delphi by the end of 85 BC to vandalise many
of the religious sites there.
81 BC
Cornelius Scipio arrives to lead a fresh
Roman
campaign in the Balkans. Again, the effort appears punitive, with no
long-term strategy to secure the territory. The Scordisci and
Thracian tribes are undaunted by the action.
c.80 BC
Amodokos IV seems to be entirely obscure apart from his name. His short 'reign',
unsupported by successors, suggests that he may be a rebel against the
Roman
annexation of Thrace. To survive for a decade, he probably has his base in
the mountainous north. When his possible rebellion comes to an end, the
Astean kingdom is the only remaining
Thracian state until
Sapes emerges with a king
who comes from the Odrissae.
Tribal Kingdom of Astean
The four Greek client republics, which included both the former
Odrysian kingdom and the tribal
Odrissae, were dissolved and officially incorporated into the
Roman province of
Macedonia
in 146 BC. This new province also included
Epirus, Thessaly, and areas of
Illyria, and Paeonia. Thrace remained under Roman control for almost half a
century before a new Thracian tribal kingdom appeared in the region. It is not clear
if the Astean kingdom, like the tribal
Bessoi, was a vassal of
Rome or was entirely independent. There is precious little information
available on the kingdom at all, not even on its location, which was
probably high up in the mountainous regions that later became part of
south-eastern Bulgaria.
This kingdom was the only possible source of Thracian independence for a
further half a century, and in some sources the reignal numbering is
continued from the Odrissae kingdom. If Kotys I of the Astean kingdom was a
descendant of one of the last of the Odrissae kings, then this was a
continuation of the senior Thracian state.
(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by I Mladjov
(University of Michigan) and Edward Dawson, from Continuity and
Innovation in Religion in the Roman West, R Haeussler, Anthony C
King, & Phil Andrews, from Liber Prodigiorum, Julius Obsequens,
from Periocha, Livy, from Res Gestae, Ammianus Marcellinus,
from Valerius Maximus, Pseudo-Quintilian, and Paulus Orosius, from Epitome
of Roman History, Florus, from Historia Romana, Cassius Dio,
from Flavius Eutropius, from Strategemata, Frontinius, from
'Breviary', Sextus Festus, from St. Jerome Emiliani (Hieronymus),
from Getica, Jordanes, from The Celts in Macedonia and Thrace,
G Kazarov, from The Origin of the Gundestrup Cauldron, Antiquity, Vol 61,
1987, A K Bergquist & T Taylor, from The Getae in Southern Dobruja
in the Period of the Roman Domination: Archaeological Aspects, S Torbatov,
and from External Links:
Journal of Celtic
Studies in Eastern Europe and Asia-Minor, and
Scordisci Swords From Northwestern Bulgaria.)
The new
Roman
governor of Macedonia,
Appius Claudius Pulcher, leads a large army against the Scordisci confederation
- the same Celts who had destroyed Cato's army and garrison in 114 BC. This
time, however, the Scordisci employ different tactics. Pulcher's army is
probably superior to Cato's, so he is allowed to penetrate the Thracian
mountains unmolested. There, a vicious and drawn-out series of skirmishes
and small-scale battles takes place between Romans and natives, with the
Celts especially employing highly successful guerrilla tactics to wear down
the opposition. Following months of constant alerts, illness, and defeats,
Pulcher dies and the remains of his army withdraws from western Thrace.
75 BC
Despite the disappointment of the campaign of 76 BC
against the Scordisci,
Rome
is making gradual progress in other parts of Thrace. The campaigns of Cnaeus
Scribonius Curio in western Thrace from 75 BC see Roman forces penetrate
the previously hostile Struma Valley to reach the Danube. They take large
numbers of prisoners along the way, including a chieftain of the Maedi named
Spartacus. Plutarch states that his wife is also taken prisoner. Some ancient
sources state that Spartacus is in fact a Roman auxiliary who is later
condemned to slavery, but all generally agree on his Thracian origins.
The South Struma Valley, showing the kind of territory the
Romans had to pass through during their relatively successful
campaign of 75 BC
72 - 71 BC
Another
Roman campaign,
this time by Lucullus in eastern Thrace, captures the Pontic cities along with
the central Thracian Valley. The various Balkan peoples have been united in
their opposition to Roman expansion in south-eastern Europe for over a century,
but they are finding themselves fighting an increasingly defensive war.
61 BC
A varying mixture of
Bastarnae,
Dardanii, Scordisci, and Thracians have met each
Roman campaign with a stubborn
resistance. Following one particularly successful encounter for the Balkan tribes
in this year, that unity is broken by the Thracian tribe of the Getae, who are
known to Rome as the Dacians based upon their general geographical position. In
61 BC the Getae are part of a force that is led by the Bastarnae. Together they
inflict a humiliating defeat upon the Roman army of the inept Gaius Antonius
Hybrida (uncle to Mark Antony) outside a Greek colony at the mouths of the Danube,
at the Battle of Histria. The entire Roman force is massacred, abruptly terminating
Roman control of the region.
60 - 59 BC
Following the success at Histria, relations between the
Getae and
their neighbours undergoes a notable deterioration. Suddenly, under the leadership
of Burebista, who is apparently guided by a wizard called Deceneus, the Getae
launch a succession of brutal attacks on their former allies. The
Celts seem to be first
on the list, although the Eravisci escape unscathed. The territory of the
Boii and Taurisci
are laid waste, with the Boii especially being almost genocidally exterminated by
Burebista's brutal onslaught. The
Scordisci in Thrace
follow, their previously unassailable heartland laid open. Next to face Burebista's
onslaught are the Bastarnae in
Dobruja, who are apparently 'conquered', and then the largely defenceless western
Greek Pontic cities.
Some towns resist him, including Histros, Mesambria, and Olbia. These are destroyed.
Burebista subsequently declares himself 'King of all Thrace'. The Dionysopolis decree
confirms this, having been dated to 48 BC. The start of this decade coincides with
the end of local coin production by the Celts and Bastarnae, showing that the cultural
and economic status quo has been fatally disrupted.
Archaeological finds from the modern southern Dobruja region also indicates the
nature of Burebista's 'Dacian' expansion. During the previous centuries of the Iron
Age in the Balkans, around seventy settlements have existed in modern north-eastern
Bulgaria,
but only twenty-nine of these survive into the
Roman period,
and continuous habitation even in these is by no means certain. Balkan unity has been
destroyed and the Getae now dominate - but for less than twenty years.
c.55 BC
The rival Thracian tribal kingdom of
Sapes is founded, and in
circumstances just as mysterious as those of the founding of the Astean
kingdom. In 57-55 BC there is unrest in
Macedonia during which
the Roman governor of Macedonia,
Lucius Calpurnius Piso, has to take action to restore control over the
Bessoi, and perhaps other
tribes, making this the perfect opportunity to secede from Roman control.
c.44 - 42 BC
Sadalas II
Son.
c.42 - 31 BC
Sapes conquers or otherwise
controls the Astean kingdom, although no details appear to be known regarding
the circumstances. It seems highly likely that
Roman
interference is to blame.
c.31 BC
Sadalas III
Son?
31 - 18 BC
Kotys III (VII)
Son of Sadalas II.
29 BC
The
Bastarnae cross the
Haemus in support of the Scordisci in modern north-western
Bulgaria. They attack
a Thracian tribe known as the Dentheletae who are allies of
Rome. General Marcus
Licinius Crassus, proconsul of
Macedonia, goes to
assist the Dentheletae with help from the Getae under King Roles, and the Bastarnae
withdraw. Crassus follows them and eventually engages them in battle. Caught unawares,
the Bastarnae are routed and their king is killed in combat with Crassus. According to
Roman writers, thousands of Bastarnae perish in the ensuing slaughter.
The Celts of the
former Scordisci
confederation have one last surprise remaining for
Rome. As imperial Rome
stamps its authority on the Balkans, Celtic tribes swoop down from the Thracian mountains.
They swarm into
Macedonia and lay
waste to the Roman province once again. The attack surely comes from the Rhodope Mountains
in south-western
Bulgaria,
making it the last hurrah of the Scordisci and providing Rome with a brutal reminder that
although the cities and plains may be civilised, the mountains of central and western
Thrace are still areas to be feared.
15 BC
A Dionysian priest named Vologeses leads an uprising of his fellow
Bessoi
which aims at freeing and re-conquering the sanctuary of their god after
it had been taken away by the Romans
and delivered to the Odrysians. Raskouporis, a relative of King Roimetalkas
I of Sapes, is killed by the Bessoi during the four-year uprising.
11 BC
Kotys IV
Last Astean king.
11 BC
Upon the death of Kotys IV, the last Astean king, the
Roman Emperor Augustus confers all of
Thrace to his Sapaen uncle, Roimitalkes.
He rules the region as a client kingdom.
Bronze coins issued during the reign of Roimitalkes I, client
Astean king under Rome
11 BC - AD 12
Roimitalkes I / Rhoemetalkes I
Uncle of
Roman
Emperor Augustus. Client king. Murdered.
Roimitalkes of Sapes is
murdered by his wife, and Thrace is annexed as a province by Emperor Claudius,
permanently ending its independence. Under the third century administrative
reforms of Diocletian, Thrace's territory is divided into four smaller provinces:
Europa, Haemimontus, Rhodope and Thracia. These are overseen by the diocese of
Thraciae, which is part of the 'Prefecture of the East'. This organisation
remains in place until the Balkan peninsula is largely overrun by the
Avars and Slavs in the 640s,
following which it is reorganised as a
Byzantine diocese.
Today the territory forms parts of south-eastern
Romania, central and eastern
Bulgaria, and Greek and
Turkish Thrace.
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