Formed
by a relatively narrow peninsula that emerges into the Mediterranean
from southern
Europe, Italy
is characterised by a rugged central spine of mountains, the Apennines,
which are bordered either side by fertile plains and valleys. For more
on the naming of the Apennines, see the feature link, right. This mountain
range has a surface area of 301,230 square kilometres, including the
islands of
Sardinia
and Sicily. Archaeological
investigation shows signs of Heidelbergensis and Neanderthal occupation,
with modern humans arriving around 40,000 years ago.
During the last ice age, water levels in the Mediterranean were lower than
today, allowing land bridges to the islands of Elba and Sicily to form, and
leaving the northern half of the Adriatic as a fertile plain. The human
hunter-gatherers of the Palaeolithic prospered until the end of the ice age,
around 10,000 BC, when large game became harder to find. The Neolithic began
with the introduction of pottery and the later Gaudo culture in southern
Italy, before these both gave way to the Bronze Age.
8000 BC
Cave
drawings on Sicily are created around
this time, with the proto-Sicani being
given credit for the work by some modern experts. Early coastal settlements can
also be found, such as at Addaura (near Palermo). If the Sicani themselves are
not responsible, then it is their Neolithic forebears, people who blend in with
the later Sicani arrivals, possibly during the late Neolithic or Bronze Age periods.
Alternatively, the Sicani are the aborigines who are influenced by the arrival of
later peoples, such as the Elymi and
Siculi around the tenth century BC.
The proto-Sicani cave paintings of about 8000 BC were created
perhaps two thousand years after their first arrival on Sicily
at the end of the last Ice Age
c.5200 BC
Pottery
appears on Sicily, by which time
proto-Sicani have also migrated to
Malta, the first people to make the journey to this island in the middle of
the Mediterranean. This proto-Sicani civilisation may be one of the most
advanced in Europe at this time. It also invents rudimentary wheels, which
initially appear in the form of rounded stones that fit easily into the
semi-circular wedges carved into the bases of large rectangular megaliths,
thereby facilitating the rolling transport of these huge stones.
c.4000 BC
The
native Sicilians begin building
Europe's oldest free-standing monumental structures. The builders of these
megalithic temples, the
proto-Sicani, are culturally
similar to the society of the Stentinello culture near Syracuse. Today
the temples are known as those of Zebbug, Gantija, Mnajdra, Hagar Qim
and Tarxien.
c.3300 BC
A
hunter is killed in the Italian Alps by an arrow which strikes him in the
shoulder. Speculation suggests that he is able to flee his attacker before
blood loss and the cold cause him to collapse several hours later. Later
known by archaeologists as Oetzi the Iceman, his body is perfectly preserved
by the Alpine ice sheets until a melt-back in the twentieth century reveals
him to German tourists in 1991. He still wears his goatskin leggings and
grass cape, and his copper-headed axe lies nearby.
3000 - 2500 BC
Copper
tools appear on Sicily,
suggesting external influences or a fresh wave of migrants. Within about
five hundred years, bronze tools are prevalent across Sicily and the
natives have contacts with peoples outside the island. This
proto-Sicani culture also
appears on Malta and thrives during the early Bronze Age.
Proto-Italics
/ Italic Tribes / Bell Beaker Culture (Italy) (Bronze Age) c.2600 - 1800 BC
Italic peoples were part of a group of languages and cultures which appear
to be related, originating from a single source. Their story is one that
links back to the earliest appearance of this single source -
Indo-Europeans who migrated into central
Europe from the
late third millennium BC. These migrants formed the origin of the
proto-Italics - not just tribes which later entered Italy but all of
these initial arrivals in Central Europe. They also formed a centum
branch of Indo-Europeans (a
West
Indo-European-speaking branch), people who all spoke the same language
but who later divided into two main language groups, Italic and the
later-arriving Celtic (see
below). A date for the split is conjectural, but 3100-2600 BC seems likely
(see the Indo-European page for a more detailed discussion).
It was these West Indo-Europeans who, upon their arrival in central
Europe, picked up the influence of the originally-Iberian
Bell
Beaker horizon. They did so enthusiastically, turning it into a true
culture, and many of them continued their migration westwards into France
while others of their number remained in northern Italy and around the
Alps and southern Germany, also practitioners of Bell Beaker culture. The
remainers were eventually joined by a second migratory group of
Indo-Europeans who settled to their north to become the Q-Celtic-speaking
Proto-Celts. The
earlier settlers were Q-Italic speakers, and it was they whom formed the
basis of all later Italic tribes. Even they divided into two main groups,
one of which included the
Latins and Faliscans who
largely retained their Q-Italic language while the bulk of the rest
developed into P-Italic speakers.
An exact date of their further migration is not known precisely, but is
estimated to fall between the twelfth to eighth centuries BC. It may have
been sparked - as were many other migrations - by the shift to a drier
climate at the end of the thirteenth century BC. Proto-Italic tribes
gradually made their way into Italy and Illyria, where they bumped up
against Greek settlements in the south and the early
Etruscans in the centre
and west. The Latins were dominated by Etruscans, from whom they learned
to read, write, and organise their society in a civilised fashion - an
education which eventually lead to
Rome's dominance. The
Romans recorded the existence of their tribal relatives in Italy, so
snippets of those languages were also recorded. These included Venetic
(of the Adriatic), probably the Liburnian and Illyrian language groups,
and likely the
Vindelician and
Ligurian also.
Rather than merely being tribes which dominated Italy, the
proto-Italic-speaking peoples should be regarded as the very first wave
of Indo-Europeans entering central and Western Europe from the steppe to
become widespread across much of Europe. Genetic testing confirms that
these R1b people were associated with the Bell Beaker physical culture,
especially in
Britain, and perhaps less so in Iberia. In fact, the first wave of
Bell Beaker folk appear to have been ninety per cent R1b, indicating
that they drove away or killed the men of the Neolithic Y-DNA type I
(I1, I2) peoples who originally inhabited Central Europe. Later, many
of the Italic-speaking peoples towards northern Italy and in Central
Europe appear to have become dominated and assimilated by their West
Indo-European relatives, the Celtic-speakers, but later the Romans
returned the favour by conquering all of their Celtic relatives except
those in
Ireland
and the northern third of Britain.
(Information by Edward Dawson and Peter Kessler, with additional information
from The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the
Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David W Anthony, from The
La Tene Celtic Belgae Tribes in England: Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R-U152 -
Hypothesis C, David K Faux, from A Genetic Signal of Central
European Celtic Ancestry, David K Faux, from Researches into the
Physical History of Mankind, Vol 3, Issue 1, James Cowles Prichard,
from The Roman History: From Romulus and the Foundation of Rome to
the Reign of the Emperor Tiberius, Velleius Paterculus, J C Yardley,
& Anthony A Barrett, from An Historical Geography of Europe,
Norman J G Pounds (Abridged Version), and from External Link:
The
Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe
(Nature).)
2500 BC
It would seem to be around this time that a process begins in which the
so-called
West Indo-European
tribes, most of whom speak dialects that are intelligible to the other
tribes, start a long process of fracturing and dividing. There is also
an unrelated tribe which is not as closely related to this group which
follows a path along the northern reaches of Europe at some unknown point
in time, and which becomes the
Germanic-speaking
people.
By around 3000 BC the Indo-Europeans had begun their mass
migration away from the Pontic-Caspian steppe, with the bulk of
them heading westwards towards the heartland of Europe (click or tap on
map to view full sized)
The West Indo-European speakers appear to form a divide into two groupings
due to location and contacts. One of these can be linked to the
Bell Beaker
culture which continues to migrate further west. Of the remainder, the
northern group becomes isolated from direct contact with the Mediterranean
civilisations and these people become the proto-Celts of the
Urnfield culture.
The southern group of West Indo-Europeans appear to migrate westwards and
southwards into the western
Balkans and Italian piedmont,
and through Illyria and northern Italy. Due to terrain, they divide further
into semi-isolated tribes. They became more civilised in habits and
technologies due to contact with southern Greeks and
Etruscans. Those in the
Balkans in part cross by sea into the Italian peninsula, and settle mostly
along the south-eastern coast. Those groups that have filtered down from
the north Italian piedmont occupy swathes of central Italy, with two tribes,
Latins
and Faliscans, crossing over the Apennines to the west coast. Because of
their semi-isolation to the west of Italy their language does not undergo
the 'qu/kw' to 'p' shift that occurs across most of the West Indo-European
dialects.
The Bronze Age Apennine culture appears in Italy from the early second
millennium BC onwards, spanning most of the country as it emerged from
the preceding Neolithic period. There are earlier elements that can be
linked to it which have been labelled proto-Apennine and which can be
dated to the beginning of the third millennium BC. The Apennine can be
broken down into four phases, early, middle, late and a sub phase. Its
pottery was a burnished blackware that was incised with patterns, usually
dots, spirals or combinations of them. Its people were alpine cattle
herders who for the most part frequented the arable land along the
mountainous stretch of central Italy. They had permanent settlements,
usually small, defendable sites, but also used temporary camps when
moving their herds between pastures.
The Terramare culture existed alongside the Apennine in Italy, being
confined mainly to the north, around the valley of the River Po. Its dating
is generally given as being half a century behind the Apennine, 1750-1150
BC, and the name comes from the black earth residues found in settlement
mounds. The people of the Terramare were bronze users, possibly descendants
of the Bell Beaker folk of northern Italy,
although a few stone objects have also been found at their sites. They also
made clay figures of animals, and sometimes of humans too. While their
origins are unknown they are generally perceived as being indigenous,
although this is open to debate if they are to be linked to the Bell Beaker
folk.
2000 - 1500 BC
An
eruption of Mount Vesuvius can be dated to this period. It destroys several
Apennine culture settlements, although the occupants have time to make a
hurried evacuation beforehand. The settlements are buried in much the same
manner as Pompeii in AD 79, and archaeologists are able to uncover one
of them in 2001, at Croce del Papa near Nola (immediately to the east of
Naples). They find preserved
household items, animals, and even the footprints of the fleeing populace.
Modern Naples lies beneath the slumbering volcano of Vesuvius,
one of a long line of settlements there that have risked an
eruption and which have sometimes been destroyed by one
1600 BC
The Middle Apennine begins in peninsula Italy, but it shows signs of influences
from the Balkans, suggesting
an influx of new people. There is a large variety in pottery types, including
bowls with elaborate, upstanding handles, and vessels decorated with curvilinear
and zigzag geometric designs.
c.1200 BC
Drier climactic conditions are causing a social breakdown further east, where
the collapse of the
Hittite empire is a major act in a century of turmoil. In Italy the Apennine
culture begins to fade out, to be succeeded by the
Villanova culture of the early Iron
Age.
Villanova Civilis / Villanova Culture
(Late Bronze Age) c.1100 - 700 BC
Located
in central and upper Italy, this was probably the first Iron Age
culture in Italy. Its uncertain origins lay in the eastern Alps, but
its people seem to have migrated from multiple locations further east,
and there are some links to the
Celtic-dominated
Hallstatt
culture and the preceding
proto-Celtic Urnfield
culture which encompassed large swathes of Central Europe, most notably
in terms of burial practices. It is impossible to pin down any origins
for the people of the Villanova. They may have been indigenous to Italy,
but the similarities between them and the Hallstatt culture suggest an
element of connection, while others label them as proto-Etruscans (view
the map via the link, right, to see the disposition of Late Bronze Age
cultures).
The culture can be broadly divided into two phases: a proto-Villanovan
culture (Villanovan I) from 1100-900 BC and the Villanovan culture proper
(Villanovan II) from 900-700 BC, when
Etruscan cities began to
be founded. The name Villanova comes from the site in northern Italy at
which the first archaeological finds relating to this advanced culture
were unearthed. The remnants of a cemetery were found near Villanova
(Castenaso, south-east of Bologna) in 1853, and were uncovered over the
course of the next two years. Most of the cremation burials were untouched,
and the urns which held the ashes of the dead were of an unusual double
cone-shaped pottery. In a cemetery of nearly two hundred burials, six
were placed apart from the rest, as if they should be accorded a special
status.
The Villanova culture eventually gave way to an increasingly Greek-influenced
eastern Mediterranean cultural dominance which was taken up by the
politically and militarily dominant Etruscans. Many of the larger Villanovan
settlements were built over in Etruscan times, probably by the same
populations that had built the earlier Villanovan settlements in the first
place.
c.1100 - 900 BC
Villanovan I Proto-Culture appears in the valley of the
River Po, in Etruria, and in parts of the Emilia Romagna. It replaces the
earlier Apennine culture which seems already to have faded perhaps half a
century before this new cultural resurgence.
During this period, in the eleventh and tenth centuries, Illyrian peoples
migrate into south-west Italy, probably across the shortest point between
Italy and the Balkans, in
modern Albania. The
Illyrians form the tribe of the
Iapyges, which subsequently
splits into several sub-branches - the
Dauni,
Messapii, and
Peucetii. In general, the
later Iron Age tribes of the Italics are formed by people who migrate westwards
across the Adriatic, while the
pre-Indo-European
natives are either subsumed, or are pushed west to
Corsica,
Sardinia and
Sicily.
The bowl on the left is restored eighth or seventh century BC
Villanovan example, while the chalice and kantharos are Etruscan
from the seventh to sixth centuries
c.1000 - 700 BC
According to the archaeological record, the
Latins
appear to develop along different cultural lines from their
Italic cousins to the east. Instead, a Latin variant of Villanovan culture
emerges (which is often called Latial culture). Funerary urns are produced
in the form of miniature huts known as tuguria, in small numbers at
first, during the latter Phase I of the culture (1000-900 BC), but in far greater
numbers during Phase II (900-770 BC). The wattle-and-daub huts themselves
remain the principle form of dwelling for the Latins until the mid-seventh
century BC.
According to Thucydides, during the tenth century the arrival of the
more warlike Oenotri and
Opici
in northern Calabria triggers the migration of the
Elymi,
Itali,
and Siculi
into the 'toe' of Italy and onto
Sicily.
Antiochus of
Syracuse,
writing around 420 BC, confirms this.
c.900 - 700 BC
This
is the Villanovan II cultural phase. It is during this period that the early
Etruscan city of
Tarchna (modern Tarquinia) is founded, at least as early as the ninth century
BC. This predates the founding of most other Etruscan cities and is the result
of late Villanovan decline and a process whereby Villanovan settlements to move
towards a nucleus close to the agricultural areas. These concentrated settlements
evolve naturally into the early cities of the Etruscan period. At Tarchna
there is a cluster of Villanovan tombs immediately predating its appearance.
The Villanova regions of northern Italy generally show a marked increase in
Greek influences in this period, but also links with the
Balts, shown by the widespread
use of amber.
c.800 BC
Etruscan civilisation
begins to flourish and eventually achieves regional dominance in a near-seamless
break by which means that the Villanova culture is subsumed. An example of this
are the Villanovan villages located on the west bank of the River Fiora.
Having become stagnant in the early 600s, these slowly expand and merge to
form the Etruscan city of Velch (modern Volci) in the mid-500s BC. Elements
of the culture may survive for a further two or three hundred years in some
areas, as the major centres of Padan Etruria, around Bologna and Modena, are
only founded in the sixth century BC.
From 241 BC and the end of the First Punic War, the Latin city of
Rome was undisputed
master of Italy. It also became undisputed master of increasingly greater
territories outside Italy, until it governed the largest empire the world
had ever seen up to that point. Rome dominated Italy for over seven hundred
years, but its fade and end led to a series of invasions and relatively
short-lived rulers which served to divide the country into a patchwork of
states.
(Additional information by Edward Dawson, and from External Link:
Polybius, Histories.)
800 BC
Etruscan civilisation
gradually subsumes the preceding
Villanova culture,
while also dominating the
Marsi to the south, and edging out
the Umbri to the east. The Etruscans
of the eighth and seventh centuries BC are significantly influenced by eastern
Greek culture, probably providing the basis for Herodotus' claim that they are
descended from
Lydian
colonists.
Etruria is dominated by a collection of city states, twelve of which form
the Etruscan League over time to defend the region against attacks by
Greeks and
Phoenicians, sometimes known as the Dodecapolis. Etrurian dominance
covers western central Italy, along with a wide swathe towards, but not
quite reaching, the Veneti tribe (around modern
Venice), and a stretch of
territory along the western coast as far south as
Naples. The city of Alalia
dominates eastern Corsica,
completing a semi-circle of territory that forms the border with the
Phoenicians of
Carthage
and the Greeks of southern Italy and
Sicily.
Two other Etruscan Leagues also form, one of which is Campania in the south,
led by the city state of Capua (and containing what is now the city of
Naples). This league dominates the
Opici people in that region. The
other is that of the Po Valley City States in the north-east, which include
Adria (modern Atria) and Spina (in the Veneto region of modern
Italy).
This map shows the greatest extent of Etruscan influence
in Italy, during the seventh to fifth centuries BC,
including the Campania region to the south (click or tap on map
to view full sized)
c.600 BC
The first century BC writer, Livy (Titus Livius Patavinus),
writes of an invasion into Italy of
Celts during
the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, king of
Rome.
As archaeology seems to point to a start date of around 500 BC for the
beginning of a serious wave of Celtic incursions into Italy, this event has
either been misremembered by later Romans or is an early precursor to the
main wave of incursions. Livy writes that two centuries before major Celtic
attacks take place against
Etruscans
and Romans in Italy, a first wave of invaders from Gaul fights many battles
against the Etruscans who dwell between the Apennines and the Alps.
474 BC
It seems that the Celtic
arrival in northern Italy has not been entirely welcomed. The
Etruscans,
who themselves have been migrating northwards to the River Po from central
Italy, have been clashing increasingly with the Celts for domination of
the region. A pivotal showdown takes place at the Battle of Ticinum in
this year (which must be located close to the main Celtic settlement of
Mediolanum that had been founded by the
Bituriges and
Insubres tribes
around a century before). The Etruscan force, which is little more than a
well-armed militia, is butchered by the Celts in a ferociously fought battle.
This victory confirms Celtic domination of the region for the next couple of
centuries, so that it is called Gallia Cisalpina (Gaul on 'our' side of the
Alps, 'ours' being the Latin and Italic side).
400 BC
Etruscan society
undergoes changes from about the mid-fifth century BC, along with an economic
slump. While the cities are recovering from the slump, the political changes
become more fully evident in the fourth century. The city states gradually begin replacing kings
or tyrants with republics governed by the aristocracy, possibly based on
Roman lines. The old
system is clearly no longer working and Etruscan domination of Italy is
starting to come under severe threat from Rome's increasing power and
prominence in local politics.
c.400 - 391 BC
Following the route set by
Bellovesus and the Bituriges
around 600 BC, other bodies of Celts have gradually invaded northern Italy,
probably due to overpopulation in Gaul and the promise of fertile territory
just waiting to be captured. The first of these is the
Cenomani around 400
BC, followed by the
Libui and Saluvii. Then the
Boii and
Lingones cross the Pennine
Alps, with the Senones the last to
arrive. The Alpine Medulli tribe may also find its home there as part of
this migration.
265 - 264 BC
Etruscan dominance
of Italy is effectively ended by the razing to the ground of the city of
Velzna by
Rome, which is now the
greatest political and military power in the peninsula. Over the next two
centuries the Italic tribes are gradually granted Roman citizenship, and
thereafter are gradually absorbed into Roman Italy, losing their individual
identities.
231 - 222 BC
The two most extensive Gallic tribes of northern Italy, the
Boii and
Insubres,
send out the call for assistance against
Rome to the tribes living
around the Alps and on the Rhone. Rather than each of the tribes sending their
own warriors, it appears that individual warriors are effectively hired from
the entire Alpine region as mercenaries. Polybius calls them
Gaesatae,
describing it as a word which means 'serving for hire'. They come with
their own kings, Concolitanus and Aneroetes, who have probably been elected
from their number in the
Celtic fashion.
While most of the Gauls of the third century BC fought fully
clothed, their Gaesatae mercenaries tended to fight with nothing
more than their weapons, and not even the trousers shown here
The
war begins in earnest in 225 BC, but although the Gauls are initially
successful, decimating and routing a Roman army with superior tactics, they
are undone by a fresh Roman army. Buoyed by its victory, Rome attempts to
clear the entire valley of the Padus, but over three campaigning seasons
they instead manage to pacify and subjugate the Celts. By 222 BC, the
final tribe to stand against them, the Insubres, are left with no option
but to surrender, their unnamed chief making a complete submission to
Rome. This act effectively ends the Gallic War in northern Italy,
as Rome now dominates all of the tribes there.
91 - 88 BC
The
Etruscans,
Frentani,
Hirpini,
Iapyges,
Lucani,
Marrucini,
Marsi,
Paeligni,
Picentes,
Samnites, and
Vestini fight the Social
War (Italian War, or Marsic War) against
Rome. The war is the
result of increasing inequality in Roman land ownership, and the spark for
conflict is delivered by the assassination of the reforming Marcus Livius
Drusus, whose efforts would have led to citizenship for all of Rome's allies.
27 BC - AD 395
The office of dictator is offered to Caesar Augustus (Octavian), who wisely
declines it. He opts instead for the power of a tribune and consular
imperium without holding any office other than that of Pontifex Maximus and
Princeps Senatus - a politic arrangement which leaves him as functional
dictator without having to hold the controversial title or office itself.
The Roman empire is born
and it survives in various forms until AD 395, at which point it is formally
partitioned into
Eastern and
Western sections. An official register of all the offices, other than municipal, which exist
in the Roman empire at this time is compiled in the Notitia Dignitatum.
Medieval Italy AD 400 - 1240
During and following the decline and fall of the
Western Roman empire,
Italy for the most part remained divided. Various powers such as the
Goths, the
Ostrogoths,
the Eastern Romans in the
form of the exarchate of Ravenna,
and then the Lombards vied for
power until the peninsula was conquered by the
Carolingian
empire. It was the wars between Ravenna and the Ostrogoths and then the Lombards
which effectively ensured Italy's division into separate states throughout
the medieval and early modern periods. The Carolingian empire subsequently
fragmented, with Francia Media
controlling Italy and power passing from that to the
Holy Roman empire in 961.
476
On 4 September, a Gothic general of the
Roman army takes Ravenna, killing Orestes and deposing
Emperor Romulus. By this time the western Roman army has ceased to exist,
starved to death by a steady decrease in recruiting grounds and a severe
lack of funds to pay those troops who still remained, so that they have
drifted off. With this coup, the Roman empire officially comes to an end in the West.
This half-siliqua was the only silver coinage issued during the
short reign of Romulus Augustus, puppet and final official
Western Roman emperor
493 - 552
On 2 February, Theodoric and Odoacer sign a treaty that divides Italy between
them, but at a banquet to celebrate the terms, Theodoric murders Odoacer with
his own hands. Now unopposed, he is able to found a Romanised
Ostrogothic
kingdom of Italy based at the imperial capital of Ravenna. His accession is
viewed by most Italians, Roman and Gothic,
as a legitimate succession. The Ostrogoths rule Italy for the next half a century,
until they are defeated at the Battle of Taginae, although the
Eastern Roman
empire begins making inroads from 536,
Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna AD 552 - 754
The imperial court of the
Western Roman empire had been moved from Milan to the more easily
defendable location of Ravenna, located in the middle of an area of swamp
and marsh, in 402 by the Emperor Honorius. As well as offering landward
protection, Ravenna had an ideal harbour which exited into the Adriatic and
allowed easy lines of communication with the
Eastern Roman capital at
Constantinople. When the West fell to Odoacer's
Gothic kingdom, the Eastern
Romans were in no fit state to immediately recover it. Instead, they
invited the Ostrogoths
to invade and rule Italy for them, and good relations were
maintained until the Ostrogothic kingdom started to fall apart from within.
By that time, the Eastern Romans were much stronger, and Italy was in their
sights as part of the restoration of a single Roman empire.
Prelude
The strong sixth century reign of Emperor Justinian I saw a successful campaign under
General Belisarius which began the long process of recapturing much of Italy for the
Eastern Roman empire. It was certainly
a long process, however, taking nearly twenty years against an
Ostrogothic enemy that was
revived and hardened by a determined King Baduila. He employed sensible tactics against
the much larger Roman forces and maintained a disciplined and ordered army. After over
a decade of leading the fight, he was finally killed in battle in 552, and with that
Ostrogothic resistance was virtually over. The exarchate at Ravenna became the centre
of Eastern Roman rule in Italy, including the marsh region which later became
Venice. But its function was
somewhat compromised by the invasion of the
Lombards into
northern Italy.
533 - 535
The Vandali
King Hilderic had been a close friend of
Eastern Roman Emperor
Justinian, so in response to Gelimer's usurpation, General Belisarius is sent to North Africa
with an army. Gelimer has already sent the bulk of his forces to
Sardinia to
recapture the island, so the invasion by Belisarius begins with an immediate
victory at the Battle of Ad Decimum. In one campaigning season the Vandali
are conquered, and Sardinia becomes a possession of the Eastern Roman empire.
North Africa also remains firmly in Roman hands as the exarchate of
Africa. It
apparently also provides the template for a general reorganisation of the empire
under Emperor Heraclius into military districts and themes. With the
empire now resurgent in the Western Mediterranean, the island of
Sicily is recaptured in 535, and
General Belisarius proceeds from his post as military tribune in North
Africa to enter Italy.
After arriving in Italy before the close of the previous
year, General Belisarius captures
Naples and enters
Rome, shortly before it
is besieged by the
Ostrogoth King
Vittigis. The city suffers starvation until the siege is lifted in 537, and
Belisarius pursues his opponents to Ravenna where they are defeated and Vittigis
is killed in 540. Belisarius is subsequently recalled to Constantinople by the
emperor, suspicious that he might attempt to claim the throne.
Ravenna had been the home of the last Roman emperors, as well
as the capital of the succeeding Goths and Ostrogoths, before
serving the same role for the Eastern Romans
541
At last blessed with a strong and determined ruler once again, the
Ostrogoths under
Baduila immediately collect together to throw off a badly organised
Eastern Roman attack
on their stronghold at Verona. Baduila is determined to win back control of
Italy in the face of the creeping Roman conquest. Belisarius is kept
in Constantinople by the emperor who is jealous of his success.
542 - 544
The
Ostrogoths win the Battle of Faventia (modern Faenza) in spring 542, but
very quickly an even greater success aids them. Shortly after the 'Plague of
Justinian' strikes Constantinople with the arrival of bubonic plague, it
quickly spreads to Italy. The
Eastern Roman empire
is devastated by it, and is critically weakened at the point at which it is
about to conquer all of Italy and bring it under the rule of one
Roman
emperor for the first time since 395. In 544, Belisarius returns to Italy to
find that things have changed considerably.
544 - 548
Belisarius
Reappointed to Italy by the emperor. Later retired.
546 - 549
With
Belisarius being starved of reinforcements by Emperor Justinian, the
Ostrogoths recapture
Rome under the
leadership of Baduila. An attempt by the much larger
Eastern Roman forces
to relieve it narrowly fails and it is sacked by the otherwise merciful and
disciplined Ostrogoths. However, they withdraw to Apulia and the see-saw
battles continue, with the Ostrogoths generally avoiding the
strongly-defended cities. Over the next three years, the Romans find
themselves on the back foot, losing rather than gaining ground in Italy.
549
Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian appoints his cousin, Germanus, to take
command of operations in Italy. He is to lead a major new expeditionary
force with orders to turn around the poor situation in the war against the
Ostrogoths.
Germanus is replaced by Liberius before the expeditionary force even gets
under way, and then it is cancelled altogether.
549
Germanus
Of
Africa? Appointed but replaced before departing.
549
Liberius
Appointed but expedition cancelled. Sent to
Sicily instead.
550 - 551
The plan to send a major expeditionary force to Italy is
resurrected, and Germanus is reappointed to command it. However, Germanus
falls ill on his way to Italy and dies. Narses, having served as
sub-commander alongside Belisarius, is designated as his replacement.
550
Germanus
Reappointed as commander in Italy but died on the way
there.
551 - 552
Narses / Narsete
Appointed to take command of all operations in Italy.
552 - 553
The death of Totila of the
Ostrogoths at
the Battle of Taginae allows
Rome to be retaken by
the Eastern Romans,
who then govern Italy from Ravenna. A final defeat in battle near Mount
Vesuvius in 553 means the death of the last Ostrogothic king and the end of
their rule in Italy. The exarchate of Ravenna is now the main centre of
power in Italy, although not the only one.
Exarchate
With the destruction of the
Ostrogoth
threat, the
Eastern Roman
empire now controlled large areas of Italy. The city of
Rome and the papacy remained
dominated by Constantinople until the eighth century, although a civil government
slowly emerged to take control of
Roman regional affairs in the late ninth century, often vying for power
with the pope. However, Eastern Roman authority was theoretical in some
places where Roman forces were spread thinly, and a new threat to peace
quickly materialised when the
Lombards entered
northern Italy.
The exarch in Italy was the direct military and civil representative of the
Eastern Roman emperor, and as such he wielded considerable power. He directly
controlled much of Italy's Adriatic coast, with territory comprising Ravenna
itself, plus the Pentapolis, a strip of five Adriatic coastal cities immediately
to the south, and the duchy of Perugia immediately south of that. There were
also a host of other territories which were governed by magister militum
and dux, including Calabria, Campania, Emilia and Liguria, the Urbicaria
around Rome, and
Venice. Areas in Italy which were
outside the exarch's control were
Corsica,
Sardinia, and
Sicily. In later years, the exarch
was often regarded as a foreign intruder, and he could find his best efforts being
blocked not only by the Lombards, but also by Rome and others who supposedly
answered to him. As a result the exarchate gradually faded in strength until it
became easy prey to conquest.
The
Lombards enter northern Italy,
intent on conquering it and creating their own kingdom. The first Roman city to fall
is that of Forum Iulii (now Cividale de Friuli), with small
Eastern Roman
defensive forces from Ravenna unable to offer any viable
opposition (and perhaps not even bothering to try). The first Lombard duchy
is created here, the duchy of Friuli. In the same year, Vicenza, Verona and
Brescia also fall to Alboin, followed by a great prize in the capture of
Milan. The north belongs to the Lombards.
Although unconfirmed, the mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale
that depicts Emperor Justinian and his entourage includes this
man who is usually identified as General Narses
568 - 573
Longinus
Last military governor.
569 - 571
Eastern Roman Emperor Justin II sends Longinus to stem the
Lombard advance, but
he can do little more than defend the coastal territories with the powerful
Byzantine fleet. Inland, territorial gains to the south of the exarchate are
quickly formalised in the shape of the duchies of
Benevento and Spoleto.
Rome is temporarily
isolated during this period and records destroyed, leaving little
information about the pontificate of John III.
572
After
a siege lasting three years, the city of Pavia falls to the
Lombards. They make
it the first capital of their new kingdom. Although Ravenna manages to
retain control of the region around this imperial city, and also re-secures
Rome through a narrow
corridor of territory running through Perugia, the Lombards still have free
access to central southern Italy and their conquests there. Apart from much
of the coastline, Ravenna also controls the extreme south of Italy, below
Benevento, along with
Corsica,
Sardinia,
Sicily, and a wide
strip of territory between Rome and Lombardic northern Italy.
573 - 575
Ravenna is almost certainly behind the murders of the powerful
Lombard king, Alboin,
in 573, and his successor in 575. Such plotting removes a powerful figure of
opposition, severely damages Lombard unity, and raises the possibility of
the Eastern Roman
reconquest of Italy. The Lombards largely remain divided, unable to organise
any significant further conquests, and a balance of power is established in Italy.
575 - 576
Baduarius
First exarch. Killed in battle.
576
Baduarius, son-in-law of
Eastern Roman Emperor Justin II, is defeated and killed in battle. Due
to the Roman focus on their eastern borders and crisis in the Balkans, there
are no extra resources to devote to Italy. Therefore, Roman authority is
limited to large pockets of territory, including Ravenna and
Rome.
576 - 585
Decius
580
Eastern Roman Emperor Tiberius II reorganises the surviving Roman
territories in Italy into five provinces which are given the Greek name
eparchies. This use of Greek instead of Latin is part of a gradual shift
for the Eastern Romans away from their Italian roots and towards greater
integration with their permanent homeland in Greece. The new provinces are
the Annonaria in northern Italy around Ravenna (which incorporates the duchy
of the Pentapolis, a strip of five Adriatic coastal cities immediately south
of Ravenna, and below that the duchy of Perugia, both governed directly from
Ravenna), the duchy of Calabria (although some areas are lost to
Benevento), the Campania, Emilia
and Liguria (only nominally), and the Urbicaria around the city of
Rome (Urbs). To the north,
across the River Po, the duchy of Venice
remains nominally under the service of the Eastern Romans.
584/585
The Lombards invade
the Merovingian
Frankish region of
Provence. In return, the Frankish king of
Austrasia, Childebert II,
and Guntramn, king of Burgundy,
invade Lombard Italy. They capture Trent and open negotiations with the
Eastern Roman emperor
via Ravenna, perhaps with a view of carving up Italy between them. The Lombards,
fearing Frankish domination, elect a king to end their disunity. He is successful
in throwing out the invaders and restoring the strength of the kingdom.
An artist's impression of mixed Lombard infantry and
cavalry in action, exhibiting Late Roman and Germanic
features in their dress and weapons
585 - 589
Smaragdus
Removed from office due to his violence & charges of
insanity.
588
Smaragdus is able to recover Classis, the port of Ravenna, from the
Lombards, but overall
is not able to make any great impact in pushing them back. Alliances with the
Avars and
Franks come to
nothing as the Franks, at least, are not particularly interested in
conducting campaigns into Italy.
589 - 598
Romanus
Died in office.
589
Romanus is able to recover the cities of Altinum, Mantua, Modena, Parma,
Piacenza, and Reggio from the
Lombards during one
extremely successful year of campaigning.
598 - 603
Callinicus / Kallinikos / Gallicinus
Recalled and replaced.
601 - 603
King Agilulf of Lombardy
fights a successful series of campaigns against rebel dukes in northern Italy,
capturing Padua in 601, and Cremona and Mantua in 603. He is also successful in
forcing the exarch of Ravenna to pay a sizable tribute.
Eastern Roman Emperor
Phocas restores Smaragdus to the position of exarch, but even he cannot hold onto
Cremona and Mantua. However, the peace he establishes by releasing Lombard prisoners
lasts for the remainder of his term of office.
603 - 611
Smaragdus
Restored. Died
shortly after being removed from office.
611 - 615
John
I Lemigius
Murdered along with several other officials.
616 - 619
Eleutherius
A eunuch.
Declared himself emperor in 619. Killed 620.
616 - 617
Eleutherius puts to death all those who are implicated in the death of his
predecessor, but immediately Naples
is withdrawn from his control by one John of Conza. Eleutherius marches on
the city, retakes it and kills the rebel. To make the situation worse the
Lombards threaten to
attack, so they have to be bought off with promises of an annual tribute.
619 - 620
Following growing discontent with the exarchate's
Eastern Roman masters,
Eleutherius notes the emperor's focus is on fighting the
Sassanids and takes the opportunity to declare himself emperor. In 620
he marches on Rome,
intent on making it his capital, but he is murdered by his own troops.
620 - 637
Isaac
the Armenian
Died, presumably in fighting against the
Lombards.
638 - 648
Plato
Sometimes placed after the first term of Theodore I.
638
In response to the rebellion of John of Conza, the exarchate creates the duchy
of Naples, the sixth such division of
Eastern Roman
territories in Italy. A dux or duke is brought into Italy to command
Naples, and he reports directly to the strategos of
Sicily. The new
duchy is similar in size and territory to the modern province of Naples.
643
One
of the most active of
Lombard kings since Alboin, Rotharis conquers the surviving
Eastern Roman
territories of Linguria (Liguria) and Inner Veneto, dealing another blow to the
fading authority of the exarch at Ravenna. Several thousand Roman soldiers
are killed in battle and, according to some sources, Exarch Isaac is either
also killed or dies of a stroke following the battle. Either way, while this
seems to link him to 643, other sources end his term of office in 637. It is
possible that two different battles and defeats have been merged into one.
648 - 649
Theodore I Calliopas
Succeeded Isaac or Plato (sources differ).
649 - 652
Olympus / Olympius
Declared himself
emperor in 652. Died of illness.
652
Frustrated
by his attempts to remove Pope
Martin from office under the orders of
Eastern Roman Emperor
Constans II, Olympus switches his allegiance. Now supporting the pope, he
declares himself emperor. In the same year he marches into
Sicily, although who he is about
to fight, the Roman strategos or the Arabs, is not clear. Instead he
is struck down by disease and dies.
This light solidus was minted during the reign of Emperor
Constans II, with his bearded face on the obverse (left)
and a cross potent on three steps on the reverse (right)
652 - 666
Theodore I Calliopas
Restored. Died.
653
The newly restored Theodore is ordered by the
Eastern Roman
emperor to arrest Pope Martin
I, as his election had not been referred to the emperor for approval. Theodore enters
Rome and his soldiers drag the pope from the Lateran. Martin is packed onto a ship and
sent into exile in Crimea, but it takes
a year before the Romans to elect a new pope.
661
Eastern Roman
Emperor Constans II is highly interested in affairs in southern Italy, which
causes him to move his capital to Syracuse on
Sicily. He appoints a native of
Naples, one Basil, as
the new dux, the military commander of the city. This is not the
first dux to be appointed, but it seems to be the first about whom
anything concrete is known, the previous incumbents being foreigners who had
been forced to answer directly to the strategos of Sicily. Now Naples
is its own master.
Following the short-lived declaration of independence by the archbishop of
Ravenna (about 670-678), the independence of the see of Ravenna is suppressed.
Rome's rights over the
see are confirmed by Eastern Roman
Emperor Constantine IV.
687 - 702
John
II Platinus / Platyn
687
The
rivalry between the two candidates for the papacy - Paschal and Theodorus -
erupts into open conflict before a third candidate, Sergius, is elected
Pope. Paschal offers
John II Platinus gold in exchange for military support. The exarch arrives
in Rome to collect his gold, and collects it by looting St Peter's (Old)
Basilica, before departing back to Ravenna. Paschal is arrested and confined
to a monastery on charges of witchcraft.
697
The
Eastern Roman
tribunes are substituted in Venice
with an elective, life-long office. It is another loss of power in Italy for
Constantinople. The process of once imperial positions passing into the
hands of a local or settled elite is ongoing throughout Italy. Militia units
are gradually formed to protect local imperial interests, but eventually
drift into local control, taking more authority and power away from
Constantinople. All of this leads to the creation of vested interests that
are different from those of the exarchate, thereby weakening it.
702 - 710
Theophylactus
709
The
exarchate is further weakened, this time by the
Byzantine
emperor himself. Justinian II sends an expedition against Ravenna, commanded
by the patrician Theodore. The reason is not clear, but it may be related to
a rebellion which involved some of the the city's inhabitants and which
dethroned Justinian in 695. Theodore invites all of Ravenna's leading
citizens to attend a banquet, where they are captured as they arrive and
thrown onto a ship to be taken back to Constantinople. The city itself is
subsequently sacked. Exarch Theophylactus is apparently not involved either
in prosecuting or defending against the action, but he is replaced in the
following year.
710 - 711
John
III Rizocopo
Involved in tidying up the repercussions of 709, brutally.
711 - 713
Entichius
Also involved in putting down revolts following the 709
events.
713 - 726
Scholasticus
724
In documents that are disputed in terms of their authenticity,
Lombard King Liutprand
cedes various properties in Lugano
to the Church of Saint Carpophorus in Como. The town remains under the rule of
the Rusca family in Como, which lies approximately midway between Lugano and
Milan, at the very foot of Lake Como (in modern
Italy, just inside the border with
Switzerland).
726
The Lombards
take control of the exarchate. As a result,
Byzantine imperial
authority is temporarily unrecognised in Italy, marking a break in
Constantinople's control over the
Papacy.
The
Byzantines recover
the exarchate, although control over
Venice is weaker now that the
city has its own elected doge in place of a Roman tribune (there is a school
of thought which suggests that the doge and Exarch Paul are one and the same
person, although the dates of office do not match up). The remaining
territory within the exarch consists of Ferrara,
Istria, the Pentapolis,
Perugia, and Ravenna's immediate surroundings.
During the two centuries of Byzantine dominance in eastern
Italy, the Eastern Romans left behind a good deal of their
Greek-based culture, including these mosaics at Ravenna
The exarchate is recaptured by the
Lombards, permanently ending
Byzantine influence in much of Italy. In the south, the catepanate of
Italy at Bari is reorganised as the chief Byzantine authority in its
remaining territories. In 754,
Rome is delivered from
Lombard attack by
Pepin III, king of the
Franks. This
fulfils his role as the ordained protector of the church following Pope
Stephen's visit to Paris, during which he re-consecrated the Frankish king.
The ex-Byzantine
exarchate of Ravenna is transferred to the pope in the form of the Papal
States.
755 - 756
The exarchate is briefly re-captured by the resurgent
Lombards in 755, but the
following year the Carolingian
Franks recapture the territory. The ex-Byzantine
exarchate is handed back to Rome
as the Papal States and northern Italy
becomes part of the Carolingian empire. The Papal States are autonomously
controlled by the archbishops of Ravenna until 1218. The Lombards remain in
power in northern Italy (despite being subjects of the Carolingians) while the
Papal States control upper central Italy. Two independent Lombard states,
Benevento
and Spoleto, control much of
the southern central region, while the far south remains in Byzantine hands.
755 - 768
Pepin III
King of the
Franks. Nominal
overlord of northern Italy.
Daufer, king of the
Lombards, invades the papal territories, and
Pope Adrian is forced to call upon the
Frankish King Charlemagne
for support and aid. Charlemagne enters Italy and breaks the Lombards,
taking the title of 'king of the Lombards' for himself. Rome gains part
of the Lombard duchy of Benevento
out of the conquest while the rest signals its independence as a continuation
of the Lombard kingdom.
781
Pepin, son of Charlemagne, is given command of the
Italian portion of the Frankish empire, which includes the former Lombard territories.
He also gains the iron crown of the rex Langobardum (king of the Lombards),
and it remains in use by the Frankish kings of
Italy.
Carolingian Kings of Middle Franks (Francia Media / Italy) AD 781 - 888
The year 781 saw the final conclusion of the efforts of
Frankish Emperor
Charlemagne to fully conquer and subdue the
Lombards in Italy. In that
same year his second son, Pepin, was given command of the Frankish possessions in Italy,
which largely consisted of the former territory of the Lombard kingdom in northern
Italy. The Franks also dominated the
Papacy, having saved it
from the Lombards, and as the upholders of Western Christendom, they were
looked to as the source of patronage and security.
The Middle Franks (Francia Media in Latin) gained their name due to their
geographical position between the
Western and
Eastern Franks. Under Lothar
I, Francia Media included all of central and northern Italy (the territory
of the former exarchate of
Ravenna and the Lombard kingdom),
and the Rhine corridor up to the modern
Netherlands, which also included
Switzerland. The imperial city
of Aachen, Charlemagne's former residence, was included in this territory.
However, this greatness was ephemeral. Lothar's death signalled its division
under the Frankish practice of partible inheritance. His territory, which
had never really bonded into a single entity thanks to its very different
cultural backgrounds, was divided relatively equally between his three
sons. Louis II received Italy and also retained his father's position as
de facto head of the
Frankish Empire.
781 - 810
Pepin
Son of
Frankish Emperor Charlemagne. King of Italy.
c.790 - 791
Claimed both by the Carolingian
Franks
and Byzantium, the
principality of
Benevento is now attacked by the latter. Byzantine troops under the
command of Adelchis, son of the last king of
Lombardy, land on the
coast of Italy around 790, but are almost immediately faced by a coalition of troops
from Benevento, Spoleto and the
Franks. The attack is successfully repelled, and the Franks think that they
have retained nominal control over the region. However, Duke Grimoaldo of
Benevento also resists
them successfully, probably in the following year, and maintains the independence
of his principality.
Charlemagne unified all the Frankish states under one ruler and
created an empire that stretched deep into modern Germany,
something that the Romans had never managed
791 - 796
Pepin marches a Lombard
army into the Drava valley to ravage Pannonia, with Duke Eric of Friuli assisting
him. This strike is a diversionary tactic so that Charlemagne is able to take his
own Frankish forces
along the Danube into Avar
territory. In 792 Charlemagne breaks off to handle a revolt by the
Saxons, but Pepin and Eric
continue to attack the Avars, taking their capital twice. The Avars are forced
to submit in 796.
810
A military expedition guided by Pepin to conquer the
Venetian lagoons is stopped by the Venetian people themselves.
Pepin's siege of Venice lasts for six months, but his forces are ravaged by
disease borne by insects from the surrounding swamps and are in no fit state
to fight off the Venetians. Pepin dies a few months later. The iron crown of
the Lombards passes to his son Bernard, but upon the death of Charlemagne in
814, the empire goes to Pepin's younger brother, Louis the Pious.
810 - 818
Bernard
Illegitimate son. King of Italy.
814 - 818
Louis the Pious, the surviving son of Charlemagne, becomes
Frankish emperor in
814, holding authority over Italy as well as his many other domains. Bernard
remains on the throne, but as a vassal-to-be of Lothar, Louis' son. In 818,
Bernard is implicated in a move to regain his full independence. He is captured
by Louis and blinded, but dies in agony two days later. Louis replaces him on
the Italian throne with Lothar, by now already the commander of the
Breton
March.
818 - 840
Lothar I
Nephew. Son of
Louis the Pious. King of Italy (&
Bavaria).
840 - 843
Louis
I wills the
Frankish empire to his sons, but tries to ensure that the eldest gains the
biggest share in order to avoid the fragmentation of territory that so weakened
the Merovingians.
Lothar receives Middle Francia (the Rhine corridor including the kingdom of
Burgundy,
and Italy, which includes the duchy of
Spoleto); Charles the Bald receives
Western Francia
(France and the duchy of
Burgundy); and Louis the German receives
Eastern Francia
(Germany, including
Alemannia,
Bavaria,
Khorushka, and
Saxony, plus regions that are already emerging as
Franconia and
Thuringia). However,
Lothar initially claims overlordship over all three regions and Louis and
Charles have to go to war to convince him to relent. The Treaty of Verdun,
signed in 843, recognises the division of the empire.
Son and co-ruler.
Sole ruler following the death of his father.
849
Louis intervenes directly in the ten year war between the new prince of
Benevento,
Radelchis I, and the brother of the former prince, Siconulf. He formalises
the division of Benevento between the principality itself and the city of
Salerno, in Campania in south-western Italy. This city will form the
capital of a new principality which also gains the cities of Capua,
Cassano Irpino, Cimitile (Nola), Conza, Paestum, Sarno, Sora, Taranto,
and Teano.
In the same year, a fresh
Aghlabid incursion threatens
Rome and other Italian
coastal cities, so the pope organises the creation of a defensive league.
The league, under the command of Caesar, son of Sergius I of
Naples, sails out to
meet the Saracen fleet at the Battle of Ostia. A storm divides the
participants halfway through the fight and the Italians return safely
to port while the Saracens are scattered. Their remnants are easily
picked off or captured afterwards and the successful defence of Italy
is celebrated.
Having captured Carthage (and what became the ruins of the Zowan
Gate shown here, near Carthage), Islam began to push northwards
to attack Italy and Spain, while above that is a map showing
the division of the Carolingian empire according to the Treaty
of Verdun in AD 843 (click or tap on map to view full sized)
855
Upon
Lothar's death at Prüm Abbey in
Lotharingia, Middle Francia
is divided between his three sons. Louis II receives Italy and the imperial
crown; Charles receives southern Burgundy, which includes Lyon, Provence,
and Vienne, and which comes to be known as the kingdom of Provence; and
Lothar II the remainder - the Rhine corridor from
Burgundy
up to the North Sea. This area has no traditional name of its own, so it
is named after its ruler -
Lotharingia (which later
becomes Lorraine).
Louis'
title of emperor has little meaning since he rules only in Italy, and even
there his reign is constantly challenged by independent
Lombard
dukes and by the Arab
Aghlabid invaders of southern Italy. He supports his brother Lothar II,
king of Lotharingia,
in a dispute with the Pope,
and briefly (864) occupies Rome.
He subsequently submits to the pope. He also unsuccessfully tries to claim
Lotharingia after Lothar's death.
860
Duke Adelchis
of Benevento
is forced to play the traditional game of fending off the hostile intentions
of both south and north, this time in the form of
Aghlabid
Islamic invaders in the south and the Middle Franks
of Italy in the north. In 860 he is defeated by the Muslims at Bari and is
forced to agree a truce. Subsequently, this forces him to call on the aid
of Emperor Louis II. The emperor attempts to gain greater influence in
Benevento, but Adelchis is able to fend him off as well as defeating a fresh
Muslim invasion.
875
Charles
the Bald of the
Western Franks is
crowned emperor of the Romans by
Pope John VIII and thereafter
nominally rules Italy, and the
Frankish Empire as Charles
II. Boso is his viceroy in Italy and Provence (and later becomes independent
king of the latter).
This denier was issued in Italy during the reign of Louis II,
ruler of Middle Francia and nominal emperor of the Frankish
realms, and was minted at Benevento
The
death of Louis the German, king of
East Francia, results in his
territory being divided between his three sons. This is something that he
had already foreseen, and portions of territory had been appointed to each
of them in 865. Now in a peaceful succession, Carloman inherits
Bavaria
and the Ostmark, Louis the Younger gains
Franconia,
Saxony,
and Thuringia, while
Charles the Fat succeeds to Rhaetia and
Alemannia (Swabia).
As the oldest son, Carloman also retains de facto dominance over
the Eastern Franks as a whole.
877
Charles
the Bald dies while fending off Carloman (son of Louis the German, king of the
Eastern Franks, who himself had
been beaten to the Italian throne by Charles the Bald). Carloman gains
Italy.
Carloman suffers a
debilitating stroke just two years after gaining Italy. Unable to rule in anything but
name and having no legitimate offspring, he divides his holdings between his
brothers. Louis the Younger gains
Bavaria
while Charles the Fat gains Italy. Carloman's illegitimate son, Arnulf,
becomes duke of
Carinthia.
Charles
the Fat succeeds as titular head of the
Frankish Empire, holding
the position as Emperor Charles III. He is crowned by
Pope John VIII. In the
following year, 882, Louis the Younger dies and Charles, as the last
remaining of the three brothers, inherits his territories of
Bavaria,
Franconia,
Saxony,
and
Thuringia, thereby reuniting
East Francia following its division in 876.
883 - 884
The
Byzantine empire
is enjoying a resurgence of fortune in southern Italy. Under Nicephorus
Phocas the Elder, the Byzantine forces slowly reconquer Calabria from 883,
with attacks being concentrated on territory around
Benevento.
Following the deposing of Duke Radelchis there, his successor, Aione,
responds by capturing Bari, although he loses it again within a year.
Charles the Fat (not necessarily living up to his descriptive
sobriquet) welcomes messengers into his tent as titular head of
the Frankish empire, as depicted in the fourteenth century
Grandes Chroniques de France
887
Charles the Fat is deposed
by the Germans at the Diet of Tribur (November 887) and the
Frankish Empire is officially
divided between East and West. The western section becomes
France, while the
eastern section becomes the
Germanic Roman Empire
(modern Germany).
Berengar of Friuli is acclaimed king of Italy (perhaps by himself).
Frankish Kings of Italy AD 888 - 961
Emperor Charles III was deposed by the Germans at the Diet of Tribur
(November 887), and the
Frankish Empire was
officially divided between East and West. Italy was heavily involved in this
momentous shift in power, and it certainly did not remain unaffected.
Berengar of Friuli claimed the throne in Italy, but Guy of
Spoleto was a major rival. Guy
failed in his attempt to gain overlordship of the
Western Franks,
and now wanted the Eastern Frankish throne. They engaged in battle near Brescia
in 888 and Berengar
emerged as marginal victor, albeit with casualties large enough to force him
to sue for a peace that lasted until 889. Arnulf of Germany immediately forced Berengar to
accept vassal status under him, but it seems that Berengar held the Germanic
imperial title. This dual claim to Germany and Italy set a precedent that became
the norm, becoming entrenched over the next century. It frequently gave the
Germanic emperors domination over northern Italy which was the cause of much
later strife.
With the truce having expired, Guy of
Spoleto attacks Berengar at the
Battle of the Trebbia. This time Guy is successful and he assumes the
Italian throne, while Berengar is reduced to his own north-eastern Italian
holdings in the march territory of Friuli. Despite many attempts, Berengar
is unable to retake Italy.
The determined Berengar of Friuli not only controlled the march
territory between Italy proper and the Avars and Magyars to the
east, but also claimed the Italian throne no less than three
times during his eventful life
Arnulf of
Carinthia,
king of Germany, teams up with
Berengar and takes Milan and Pavia, while Guy is succeeded on the Italian
throne by his son, Lambert. Arnulf leaves his son, Ratold, in command of his
captured territory in Italy, forming a dual kingdom in the peninsula. Rule
of northern and central Italy is divided between
Spoleto and Germany, but Ratold
soon departs for Germany, leaving Berengar in command of his section.
King of
Germany and ruler of Italy in
opposition to Lambert.
894
Ratold
Son of Arnulf and vassal. Rival ruler of Milan & Pavia.
894 - 896
Berengar I of Friuli
Vassal of Arnulf. Restored as rival ruler of Milan & Pavia.
896
Berengar
agrees on the formal division of Italy with
Germanic Roman Emperor
Lambert. Berengar controls the eastern section, covering the Adda to the Po,
while Bergamo is shared. Lambert agrees to marry Berengar's daughter to seal
the deal. The peace quickly falls apart when Berengar, perhaps retaining
illusions of imperial greatness, is defeated by Lambert while advancing on
Pavia. Fortunately for him, Lambert dies just days later. Berengar immediately
secures Pavia and is established as sole ruler of Italy (although he is still
a vassal of Arnulf, king of Germany,
duke of
Carinthia,
and now Germanic Roman emperor himself).
896 - 900
Berengar I of Friuli
Restored as sole
ruler of Italy.
899 - 901
As part of their initial invasion of Europe, the
Magyars
invade Italy, possibly at the prompting of Arnulf, king of Germany.
Berengar refuses a request by them for an armistice but his army is
surprised and routed at the Battle of the Brenta on 24 September 899. The
nobility immediately fear that he is unable to defend Italy and they call in
Louis of Provence, yet another
Carolingian
descendant. Louis defeats Berengar in 900 and the following year he is
crowned
Germanic Roman Emperor
by
Pope Benedict IV.
900 - 905
Louis III of Lower Burgundy & Provence
King of
Burgundy
(887-928). Provence (c.891).
Emperor (901-905).
905
Berengar defeats Louis at Verona, capturing him
in the process. Louis is blinded before being allowed to return to Provence, where he
remains on the throne as Louis the Blind. Berengar rules Italy again, almost
entirely unchallenged, with a heavily fortified Verona as his seat of power.
As the latest in a series of conflicts with the
Saracens, the forces of the new
Byzantine
strategos of Bari, one Nicolaus Picingli, assemble alongside those of
various other southern Italian princes in the Christian League. It includes
Landulf I of Benevento,
John I and Docibilis II of Gaeta, Gregory IV and John II of
Naples,
Pope John X, Guaimar II
of Salerno, and Alberic I of
Spoleto. The allied Byzantine-Lombard army fights and defeats the
Fatamids
at the Battle of Garigliano, a drawn-out combination of fights and a siege.
The Saracens find themselves in a worsening situation and eventually attempt
to flee, only to be captured and killed. It is a militarily significant
victory in the fight against
Islamic advances in Italy.
921 - 923
Segments of the Italian nobility are unhappy with
Berengar, so they invite Rudolph II of Upper
Burgundy
to take the throne. At the same time, Berengar's own grandson, Berengar of
Ivrea, is encouraged by Rudolph to rise against him. Berengar retreats to
Verona and watches helpless as Italy is ravished by invading
Magyars,
their attacks the trigger for a change of leadership in Italy in the first
place. Rudolph's forces unite with those of Berengar of Ivrea and defeat
those of Berengar of Friuli at the Battle of Fiorenzuola on 29 July 923.
Berengar is soon murdered at Verona by one of his own men. Rudolf rules
Italy and also holds the title of
Germanic Roman Emperor,
only to find a rival in Hugh of Arles.
922 - 926
Rudolf II of Upper Burgundy
King of
Burgundy (912), Lower Burgundy (933)
&
Emperor (922).
Provence (Lower Burgundy) ceases to be a separate kingdom when Hugh of Arles, king of
Burgundy, exchanges that with Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy for the crown of
Lombardy, otherwise known as the kingdom of Italy. The exchange ends
Rudolf's claim on Italy once and for all.
945
An uprising of the Italian nobility forces Hugh into exile, and Berengar of
Ivrea now holds any true power and patronage. Hugh's successor is Lothar II,
his own son, but he exercises no authority in Italy, quickly dying at Turin.
It is possible that he is poisoned by Berengar of Ivrea who subsequently
formalises his control of Italy by claiming the throne.
Feeling that his position is threatened by the marriage of his father, Otto
of Saxony,
to Adelaide, heiress of Italy, Ludolph of
Swabia joins
forces with his brother-in-law, Conrad the Red, duke of
Lorraine, in revolt.
Ludolph is supported by the Swabians, but Conrad fails to gain the same
support from his own subjects. Otto and Henry I of
Bavaria defeat the rebellion. The following year, Ludolph is deprived of
his title.
961
Berengar
is defeated by the
Saxon
king of Germany, Otto I
and imperial control is subsequently restored on
Corsica (by 965).
Italy is officially incorporated into the
Holy Roman empire.
Otto accepts the surrender of Berengar of Ivrea in
961 to become undisputed German emperor, shown in this
early thirteenth century text called the Manuscriptum
Medioalense
With
the rise to power of the
Saxon
Otto I, control of Italy falls permanently to the non-Frankish
Holy Roman Emperors. The
precedent that had been established in 888 is now firm fact, and Italy does
not have a dominant leader of its own to challenge imperial control. Instead,
Italian politics remains a maze of in-fighting between a patchwork of city
states, various duchies and margraviates (such as
Benevento,
Camerino, Capua, and Spoleto),
and the Papal States.
1158 - 1162
Supported as always by his brother-in-law, Louis the Iron of
Thuringia,
Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick I claims direct imperial control of Italy at the Diet of Roncaglia
in 1158. The diet, held near Piacenza, includes representatives of cities in
northern Italy, plus general nobles and senior church officials of the
empire. It is held as a direct response to raids carried out by Frederick
Barbarossa in Italy, who is attempting to restore his rights over the
increasingly independent trading cities there. The diet finds in his favour
so the cities of northern Italy refuse to accept the decision. Frederick
imposes his will by force of arms, and in 1162 razes Milan to the ground
(supported on campaign by Herman of
Carinthia).
The Italian response is to unite under the
Lombard League.
Lombard League of Italy c.AD 1167 - 1250
With Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick I forcibly attempting to increase his influence in, and power
over, Italy, the Lombard League was formed around the year 1167. Its job was
to counter the imperial threat, and it was bolstered by the support of the
Papacy, which was just
as keen to reduce imperial interference in 'its' sphere of influence. At its
height it managed to incorporate most of the cities of northern Italy,
including Bergamo, Bologna, Brescia, Crema, Cremona, Genoa, Lodi, Mantua,
Modena, Milan, Padua, Parma,
Piacenza, Reggio Emilia, Treviso,
Venice, Vercelli, Verona,
and Vicenza. The exact make-up of the league changed over time, with
some cities seceding and others joining.
Once the league had achieved its aims in 1176 and 1183 it was no longer
needed. But subsequent events, especially when Emperor Frederick II
attempted to reverse the defeat of 1176, meant that it was reformed several
times. In fact, both Fredericks were the league's greatest reason to exist.
Once the second of them had died, the league was dissolved, its job
successfully done. Much of it was absorbed into the territory of Milan.
1167
Almost as soon as it is founded, the Lombard League becomes the 'last man
standing' in the fight against Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick I. His defeat of
Pope Alexander III at
the Battle of Monte Porzio knocks the Papal States out of the conflict, but
the Pope continues to support the Lombard League quite heavily.
1176
The
struggle between Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick I and the Lombard League comes to a head at the
Battle of Legnano on 29 May 1176. Frederick is heavily defeated, with his
personal guard being slain and he himself being thrown from his horse,
whereupon his troops believe him to have been killed. The subsequent Peace
of Venice agrees a six-year truce which is concluded by the Peace of
Constance.
The Battle of Legnano on 29 May 1176 ended the hopes of Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of dominating Italy following
his defeat by the Lombard League
1183
Milan
becomes a self-governing imperial city thanks to the Peace of Constance, in
which Frederick I is forced to renounce his rights of sovereignty over northern
Italy. The Italian cities agree to remain loyal to the
Holy Roman empire but
will pursue an independent course when it comes to their own governance. Although
Milan is a republic it is usually dominated by one person, a so-called signore.
The city quickly becomes dominated by the della Torre, who establish themselves
as lords of Milan.
Lords of Milan AD 1240 - 1395
Pagano della Torre (meaning 'of the tower' and also rendered as Torriani)
was a condottiero, essentially a military leader with the status of a
warlord, someone who often served as a mercenary commander in times of
conflict in Italy. His grandfather was one Martino 'The Giant' who fought
in the
Crusades.
Martino's son was Jacopo, who married into the powerful Visconti family and
became captain of Milan while his in-laws were serving as patrician of Pisa,
dominating the giudici of
Cagliari, and
intermarrying with the giudici of
Gallura. Pagano was
Jacopo's son, and he also became captain of Milan (in 1240), establishing
himself and his descendants as the main power in the city.
Milan had been founded by the
CelticInsubres tribe, perhaps
around 600 BC. It was developed under
Roman control, but its
convoluted political history during the medieval period essentially
reflected that of all of Italy. The governance of the peninsula was
disjointed and fractured, with frequent internecine squabbles and threats
from greater powers from outside Italy, especially from the growing might
of France,
Aragon, and
Castile.
All of northern Italy remained nominally under the vassalage of the
Holy Roman empire,
but the struggle for power between the
Papist Guelfs and their
opponents, the
Imperialist
Ghibellines, was intense in this period.
1240 - 1247
Paganus / Pagano I della Torre
Son of Jacopo. Captain of Milan. Died.
1247 - 1257
Paganus / Pagano II della Torre
1253 - 1256
Manfredi Lancia
1257 - 1259
Martino della Torre
Brother or nephew of Pagano I. Died 1263.
1257 - 1259
Martino imposes his personal power over Milan as its captain. The della
Torre lordship of the city begins with him and lasts for half a century or
so. The della Torre family also hold Bergamo, Lodi, Novara, and Vercelli. In
1259, Oberto Pallavicino, a field captain for former
Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick II, defeats the Lombardic-Guelphish League of towns at the Battle
of Cassano, and as a reward he is granted command of Alessandria, Como,
Lodi, Milan, Novara, and Tortona.
Medieval Italy was a cauldron of competing city states, with
unceasing competition between them that sparked the Renaissance
and a blossoming of culture and advancement
1259 - 1264
Oberto Pallavicino
1263 - 1265
Filippo della Torre
Brother of Martino.
1265 - 1277
Napoleone della Torre
Cousin, and son of Pagano I. Imprisoned, died the
following year.
1273 - 1274
With his brother Raimondo, bishop of Como, having been a prisoner of Conrad
Venosta von Matsch (a minor vassal from the alpine Valchiavenna region of
Lombardy) since 1269, Napoleone manages to free him. In the same year,
Rudolph of Habsburg is elected
Holy Roman Emperor and Napoleone switches his
own allegiance to him, away from the now too-dominant Charles of Anjou in
Naples. As a reward, in
1274 Napoleone is granted the title of imperial vicar in Lombardy.
1277
Napoleone is attacked by Ottone Visconti in a struggle for control of Milan.
Initially, Napoleone holds him off, winning the Battle of Guazzera (the
captured nephew of Ottone Visconti, Teobaldo Visconti, is captured during
the battle and is later beheaded). However, he is subsequently defeated at
the Battle of Desio, and della Torre power in Milan is broken, barring a brief
final flourish in 1302. Napoleone dies the following year. Francesco della Torre,
podestà of Alessandria, Bergamo, Brescia, Lodi and Novara, is also killed
by the visconti at Desio, a double blow for the della Torre family.
1277 - 1294
Ottone Visconti
Son of Ubaldo Visconti. Archbishop of Milan.
1284
Early in the year, Genoa attempts the conquest of Porto Torres and Sassari
on Sardinia (part of the recently fallen giudicato of
Logudoro). Part of
Genoa's large merchant fleet defeats a Pisan force while heading into the
eastern Mediterranean. Then Genoa blockades Porto Pisano, Pisa's own
harbour, and attacks Pisan vessels across the Mediterranean. The final act
is the Battle of Meloria on 5-6 August 1284, close to Livorno on Italy's
upper western coast. The Pisan fleet is decimated by Genoese galleys at the
same time as Pisa itself is attacked by Florence and Lucca, destroying any
hope of a Pisan restoration. The defeat marks the end of Pisa as a major
power, sending the city into a decline that ends with its eventual conquest
by Florence.
Corsica is ruled by the victorious Genoa.
1294 - 1302
Matteo I Visconti
Grand-nephew through Teobaldo Visconti (killed 1277).
1288/1291
Holy Roman Emperor
Rudolph I appoints Matteo as his vicar general for Lombardy, and the
captain's influence extends as far as Bologna, Emilia, Genoa, and Piedmont.
The year in which this takes place is unclear, either being 1288 or 1291.
1297 - 1302
Lugano is taken from the bishopric of
Como and becomes the property of Milan. The struggle for power in Italy between the
Papist Guelfs, which
in Rome are led by
the Orsini family, and their opponents, the
Imperialist
Ghibellines which are led by the Colonna family, is intense in this period.
It also influences the struggle for power between Como and Milan. When Guido della Torre
of the anti-Visconti Guelfs displaces Matteo Visconti as lord of Milan in
1302, Como regains Lugano and holds it for over a century.
1302 - 1311
Guido della Torre
Fled Milan and died in 1312.
1308
With the death of Nino Visconti, giudice of
Gallura, his daughter Joanna
inherits the title. Despite attempts to assert her rights to control Gallura,
she is unsuccessful, and she eventually sells her title to her relatives,
the Visconti family of
Milan (presumably in 1308). They later sell them on to
Aragon,
which is eventually able to conquer the entire island of
Sardinia.
1311
Guido attempts to rally the people of Milan against
Holy Roman Emperor
Henry VII of Luxemburg and his proposed
treaty between the opposing factions in Italy. The attempt
fails and Guido is forced to flee Milan, to be replaced by the restored
Matteo Visconti.
1311 - 1322
Matteo I Visconti
Restored. Abdicated.
1320 - 1322
In an escalation of the continuing conflict between Guelfs and
Ghibellines, Pope
John XXII ensures that Matteo is charged with necromancy for attempted
papicide. Matteo refuses to appear before the papal court and is found
guilty in his absence in 1321. The charge spreads to Galeazzo, Matteo's son,
and in 1322 the papal legate, Cardinal Bertrand du Poujet, proclaims a holy
crusade against the Visconti. With the stakes escalating further, Matteo
stands aside in favour of his son (and dies a month later).
1322 - 1327
Galeazzo I Visconti
Son. Imprisoned at Monza.
1327 - 1339
Azzone Visconti
Son. Died of gout.
1330
In a change to the established tradition, Azzone is named perpetual lord of
Milan, now that the threat of excommunication raised against his family
during the conflict with Matteo Visconti has expired.
1331 - 1335
Azzone allies himself with Theodore I, marquess of Montferrat. Their common
enemy is Robert of Anjou, king of
Naples, and Azzone is
keen to reclaim his possessions in north-western Italy. The following year,
he takes Bergamo and Pizzighettone. Further conquests in 1335 include Crema,
Cremona, Lodi, and Vercelli, along with other territories in Lombardy that
had ceded control to the
Papal States.
1339 - 1349
Luchino Visconti
Brother of Galeazzo I. Lord of Pavia (1315). Poisoned.
1339 - 1349
Luchino expands his territory during his time as lord of Milan, by hiring an
army of mercenaries and placing them under the command of his illegitimate
son, Stefano. Pisa is captured, and Parma is purchased from Obizzo III
d'Este, marquis of Ferrara.
1343 - 1345
Jani Beg, khan of the
Golden
Horde, leads a massive Crimean Tartar force against the
Crimean port city of Kaffa.
The assault turns into a siege which is lifted by a Genoese relief force.
Two years later, Jani Beg returns, but the second attack against Kaffa is
defeated by an outbreak of Black Plague. There is a possibility that Jani
Beg's army catapult their infected fellow troops into Kaffa so that the
defenders will become infected. The ploy fails to bring the city to its
knees, but infected Genoese sailors subsequently take the Black Death with
them back to Italy.
1349 - 1354
Giovanni Visconti
Brother. Archbishop of Milan (1342-1354).
1350 - 1352
Giovanni secures control of Bologna as its new lord, and he places his
nephew, Bernabò, in command there. Milan continues to increase its power in
Lombardy in general. Genoa is added to the list of Milanese possessions in
1352, with Giovanni becoming lord there, and in 1353 Novara is also
acquired.
1354 - 1385
Bernabò Visconti
Nephew, and son of Stefano.
1354 - 1378
Galeazzo II Visconti
Brother and co-ruler.
1354 - 1355
Matteo II Visconti
Brother and co-ruler.
1355
After having shared power in turns in Milan for just a year, the vicious
Matteo is murdered by his two brothers, and they divide his share of Milan's
outer territories between themselves.
Although Sforzesco Castle was only transformed into a ducal
palace by its namesake, Francesco Sforza, in 1450, its origins
date to the time of Galeazzo II Visconti
1378 - 1385
Gian Galeazzo I Visconti
Son of Galeazzo II, and co-ruler with Bernabò Visconti.
1385
Bernabò Visconti is overthrown by his nephew and son-in-law, Comte de Vertus
in Champagne, Gian Visconti (a title delivered to Gian by his first wife,
Isabelle of Valois). Bernabò
is imprisoned and dies soon afterwards, poisoned allegedly on Gian's orders.
Soon after securing his new domain, Gian expands his territory. He seizes
Padua, Verona, and Vicenza, becoming lord of each of them and giving himself
control of much of the Po Valley. Padua is lost in 1390.
1385 - 1395
Gian Galeazzo I Visconti
Became sole lord in 1385. Raised to duke of
Milan.
1395
Gian Galeazzo Visconti purchases a diploma for 100,000
florins from Holy Roman Emperor
Wenceslas of
Luxemburg. This
diploma confirms Gian Visconti as duke of
Milan and count of Pavia.
Duchy of Milan AD 1395 - 1535
The duchy of Milan constituted twenty-six towns in central-northern Italy when
it was created on 1 May 1395 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, lord of
Milan. Ultimately, the towns were
possessions of the Holy Roman
empire,
and the duchy remained a vassal of the empire. It was located to the north
and south of the River Po, and extended westwards to the Montferrat hills and
eastwards to the Venetian Lagoon. It was neighboured by the
Swiss to the north,
Venice and Mantua to the east,
Modena and Genoa to the south, and Montferrat and
Savoy to the west.
Milan had developed from the Roman
town of Mediolanum (the scene of a battle between Emperor Gallienus and the
Alemanni in AD 259). Serving for
a time as the capital of the
Western Roman empire (until 402), it was captured by the invading
Lombards in 569, and
in 661 it formed the capital of a briefly divided Lombard kingdom. It remained
a vital city despite not always being a seat of power, and its recreation at the
heart of the duchy gave it all of the towns of the former Lombard League.
Dreaming of a united Italy under his control,
Gian Visconti launches ill-advised assaults against his main obstacles,
Bologna and Florence. Although his forces are generally expected to succeed,
losses are heavy on all sides. Victory at the Battle of Casalecchio on 26
June sees the Bolognese defeated, but Gian succumbs to fever at Melegnano
Castle on 10 August and dies a month later. His combined territories break
up amid squabbling between his heirs.
A portrait of Gian Galeazzo I Visconti, first duke
of Milan during the politically troubled early Renaissance
period in Italy in which he was able to purchase his title
and domains
1402 - 1412
Gian
Maria Visconti
Son. Aged 13 upon
accession. Assassinated.
1402 - 1404
Catarina Visconti
Mother and regent. Arrested and murdered.
1404
Condottiero Facino Cane, a military leader with the status of a warlord,
poisons Gian Maria's mind against his mother, Catarina Visconti. The young
duke has her arrested on suspicion of treason and imprisons her in Monza
Castle, were she is apparently poisoned in the same year.
1411 - 1416
Lugano is again under Milan's
administration, until it is regained by the bishopric
of Como for the second and last time (the first time being in 1297).
1412 - 1447
Filippo I Maria Visconti
Brother. Died without issue.
1421 - 1435
Following a period of
French domination of the
republic of Genoa, Filippo Visconti manages to dominate it for a little over a
decade. In the same year, 1421, his condottiero, Francesco Bussone, count of
Carmagnola, conquers Brescia for him.
1423 - 1427
When Giorgio Ordelaffi, lord of Forlì, dies, his son succeeds him although
he is still a child. Filippo Visconti becomes his guardian but abuses his
position of trust and attempts to conquer areas of the Romagna in 1423. The
republic of Florence refuses to allow Milan's unchecked expansion of
territory, so the Wars in Lombardy are triggered.
Venice is soon persuaded to join
in 1425, on the side of Florence. In March 1426 Francesco Bussone foments
riots in Brescia, beginning the process by which Venice conquers it after a
long campaign, expanding its Dry Land Dominion in the process. Filippo is
forced to accept a peace deal proposed by
Pope Martin V which
favours Venice and Francesco Bussone. At the first opportunity, Filippo
resumes the fighting but is quickly defeated at Maclodio on 12 October 1427.
A more concrete peace is signed at Ferrara.
1434
The duke of Milan secures Lugano permanently, but now with the counts of
Lugano
providing regional control. The dispossessed Rusca family is compensated
with the ownership of Locarno.
1438
The bridge over the River Tresa, approximately nine kilometres to the
south-west of
Lugano,
has been mentioned in records since the ninth century. The area on either
side of the bridge contains the villages of Lavena and Ponte Tresa (both
of which had originally been settled by the
Ligurians and
Celts and which bear
Celtic names). More recently, this area has been fought over by Como
and Milan, part of their incessant rivalry for domination in northern
Italy. Now the Visconti duke of Milan gives the villages to Count Luigi
of Lugano.
1440
Filippo Visconti's troops, led by his condottiero, Francesco Piccinino,
fight the Battle of Anghiari on 29 June 1440 against the Italian League
which is led by the republic of Florence. The battle is part of the Wars in
Lombardy, during which the five major Italian powers cement the positions
they will hold until the Italian Wars start in 1494. The Milanese forces
are defeated, despite holding numerical superiority.
1447 - 1450
Upon the death of Filippo Visconti, the last direct male representative of
his family, the Golden Ambrosian republic is declared in Milan on
13 August 1447. Members of the University of Pavia are the driving force
behind the declaration, but they find able support from Francesco Sforza, a
condottiero and an adventurer who is married to the illegitimate daughter of
Filippo Visconti. Sforza is able to help defend the duchy from multiple
claimants to the title, including the
French duke of Orleans,
and attacks by mighty
Venice, although Crema is lost
to the Venetians. Ultimately, Francesco betrays the Ambrosian republic, seizes Milan,
and pronounces himself the new duke on 25 March 1450.
1450 - 1466
Francesco I Sforza
m daughter of Filippo Maria. Probable count of
Lugano in
1464.
1461 - 1464
Having abandoned his long-standing support of the Angevins in their claim of
Naples, Francesco
Sforza takes advantage of a revolt in Angevin Genoa. He ensures the election
of a puppet there in the form of Spinetto
Campofregoso, and manages to retain control of Genoa and Savona until the
formation of the emergency government and the 'Eight Defenders of the
Fatherland'.
1466 - 1476
Galeazzo III Maria Sforza
Son. Assassinated.
1466 - 1468
Bianca Maria Visconti
Mother and co-ruler. Edged out of power by her ruthless
son.
1476 - 1494
Gian Galeazzo II Sforza
Son. Acceded aged 7. Died under suspicious circumstances.
1476 - 1481
Bona of Savoy
Mother and regent.
Edged out of power by Ludovico Sforza.
1477
The son of the late Duke Francesco and his wife, Bianca Maria, Ottaviano
opposes the restoration of Ugo Sanseverino as count of
Lugano.
Supposedly this is for two years, but the nineteen year-old Ottaviano
Maria Sforza drowns near Rivolta d'Adda in 1477 while attempting to escape
arrest. He has no issue, so his claim to the county passes to one of his
brothers.
The ill-fated Ottaviano Maria Sforza, who opposed the
restoration of Ugo, count of Lugano, and soon afterwards
was drowned while attempting to avoid arrest, was painted
in oils by Botticelli
1481
Bona
of Savoy has until now
acted as regent for her young son. However, she has been engaged in a
protracted and bitter struggle for power with her brother-in-law,
Ludovico Maria Sforza and, despite the best attempts of everyone involved to
keep Ludovico out of power, he now seizes control of Milan's government. The
remainder of the lifetime of Duke Gian Galeazzo II (which is terminated in
suspicious circumstances) sees Ludovico in full command of Milan as his
regent.
1481 - 1494
Ludovico Maria Sforza
Son of Francesco. Regent. Count of
Lugano
(1484-1501).
1488 - 1499
Milan
briefly controls Genoa again but is initially rebuffed by the Genoese
emergency government. However, Milan dominates the republic until
France
intervenes.
1494 - 1499
Ludovico Maria Sforza / Louis / Ludwig
Former 'regent' and de facto ruler since 1481.
1494 - 1495
The
county of
Holland passes to the son of
Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. That son is Philip, later king consort of
Castile.
The following year, an alliance is formed between
Naples, the
Pope, Milan,
Venice, and the emperor
in order to defend Italy from Charles VIII of
France. This marks the
beginning of the highly destructive Italian Wars which last until 1559.
1498 - 1499
The duke of Orleans succeeds to the French
throne as Louis XII, and immediately seeks to enforce his father's claim on
Milan. He invades in 1499, also taking control of
Lugano,
and Ludovico Sforza is soon ousted. The seizure of Lugano serves to end a period
of rebellions and uprisings that have been taking place against the dukes of
Milan. It also introduces a new dynamic in the perpetual struggles between
Como and Milan, with the Swiss
Confederation now also becoming involved.
1499 - 1500
Louis XII of France
Grandson of Valentina, daughter of
Gian Galeazzo Visconti.
1500
Ludovico Sforza
Restored. Died 1508.
1500
Ludovico manages to regain Milan by returning with an army of mercenaries,
which includes Swiss fighters.
He uses the city of Novara as his base, and Louis XII quickly lays siege to
it. With Swiss troops on both sides, those fighting for Ludovico decide to
absent themselves from the battle rather than fight their fellow countrymen.
The 'Betrayal of Novara' sees Ludovico being handed over to the
French, who promptly
transport him to a dungeon at Loches where he remains for the rest of his
life. The duchy is now France's on the basis of the claim by Louis XII.
Lugano is
occupied by the duchy of Milan for just a decade, before becoming the
property of Switzerland, this
time permanently. The Swiss also oust the French
from Milan, and Massimiliano Sforza is raised to the title of duke.
1512 - 1515
Massimiliano Sforza
Son of Ludovico.
1515
The French invade again,
this time under Francis I. Victorious at the Battle of Marignano, they capture
and imprison Massimiliano, and Francis I personally assumes the title of duke.
The French have various allies assisting them, including Duke Anthony the
Good of Lorraine.
The French are again
driven out of Milan, now by the
Austrians
under Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V who installs Massimiliano's younger brother, Francesco II Sforza.
His brief tenure is ended, again by a French occupation (although seemingly
without Anthony of
Lorraine who has returned home).
1521 - 1524
Francesco Maria II Sforza
Brother of Massimiliano.
1524 - 1525
Francis I of France
Restored.
1525
The French are defeated at
the Battle of Pavia, leaving
Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V dominant in Italy. Newly re-installed Duke Francesco
Sforza joins the League of Cognac against the emperor along with Florence,
France, the Pope, and
Venice. This backfires when the
emperor takes military action against Milan.
1525 - 1535
Francesco II Sforza
Restored. Died without issue.
1529
Francesco is driven out of Milan by
Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V, but he retains control of other towns within the duchy, and is
restored in Milan following the peace accord of Cambrai in the same year.
1535
Giovanni Paolo Sforza
Half-brother. Laid claim to the duchy but died
mysteriously.
1535
With Francesco dead and his half-brother also conveniently
and abruptly dead following a short-lived claim for the duchy, both
France and the
Holy Roman Emperor
claim Milan for themselves. Emperor Charles V invests his son, Phillip II of
Spain, as the duke of
Milan, tying the duchy to Spain for the next century and-a-half.
Spanish Governors of the Duchy of Milan AD 1535 - 1706
Despite the frequent changes in possession, Milan remained a fief of the
Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V. Although France
held a legitimate claim to the duchy through Louis XII and his Milanese
grandmother, Charles V ignored this and instead invested his son, Phillip II of
Spain as the duke of
Milan in an attempt to retain as many Habsburg holdings as possible across
Europe. It took the French until 1559 and the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis before
they would recognise Philip as the duke. However, while he held the title of
duke directly, he resided in Spain and day-to-day authority within the duchy
was handed to a governor.
1535 - 1536
Antonio de Leyva
Prince of Ascoli. Duke of Terranova. Died.
1536 - 1538
Cardinal Marino Caracciolo
Governed civil and economic affairs. Died.
1538 - 1546
Alfonso d'Avalos d'Aquino
Governed military affairs during Caracciolo's term of
office.
1545
The duchy of Parma is
created out of a portion of territory that had belonged to the duchy of Milan
- an area to the south of the River Po that is centred around the city of
Parma. The new duchy is for Pope
Paul III's illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese. As the duchy's overlord,
Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V soon invests his own son with the title.
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V is depicted wearing a laurel crown
on the obverse of this silver medallic 'testone' which was
struck by the duchy of Milan in homage to him
1546 - 1555
Ferrante / Ferdinando Gonzaga
Prince of Molfetta. Duke of Ariano.
1553 - 1555
The Italian War results in an invasion of
Corsica in 1553 which
disrupts Genoese rule of the island.
French and
Ottoman
forces team up in the Mediterranean to disrupt coastal areas that are loyal
to or controlled by the
Holy Roman Emperor.
The French are the driving force behind these operations in their attempt to
gain control of Italy. They raid the coasts of Corsica, Elba,
Naples, and
Sicily. Then
a force of French and Ottomans, together with Corsican exiles, capture
the strategically important island, robbing the empire of a vital line of
communications. Their fleets leave as winter approaches, with a fairly small
garrison of 5,000 second line troops remaining behind. Genoa immediately
organises a counter-invasion with 15,000 men, and much of Corsica is retaken
in 1554, with the rest being gained in 1555.
1555 - 1556
Fernando Álvarez de Toledo
Duke of Alba. Governor of the Spanish Netherlands
(1567-1573).
1556 - 1557
Cristoforo Madruzzo
Prince-Bishop of Trent (1539-1567).
1558 - 1560
Gonzalo II Fernández de Córdoba
Grandson of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, viceroy of
Naples.
1559
The
Italian Wars (started 1494) conclude with the signing of the Treaty of
Cateau Cambrésis between
England,
France and
Spain. Emmanuel Philibert
regains his duchy of Piedmont and
Savoy in full as part of the
war's ending and he departs his post in the Spanish Netherlands to take up
his duties. Corsica is
restored to Genoa, while Spain is confirmed in its direct control of Milan,
Naples, Presidi,
Sardinia, and
Sicily,
now free of any counter-claim by France.
1560 - 1563
Francesco Ferdinando II d'Ávalos
Son of Alfonso d'Avalos d'Aquino. Viceroy of
Sicily
(1568-1571).
1563 - 1564
Gonzalo II Fernández de Córdoba
Second term of office. Duke of Baena.
1564 - 1571
Gabriel de la Cueva
Duke of Alburquerque. Died.
1571 - 1572
Álvaro de Sande
Interim governor.
1572 - 1573
Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens
Brother of Viceroy Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens of
Naples.
1573
Luis de Zúñiga is summoned by King Philip II of
Spain
to become governor of the Spanish Netherlands. Once there he proves to be
one of the more restrained and enlightened governors.
1573 - 1580
Antonio de Zúñiga y Sotomaior
Died.
1580 - 1583
Sancho de Guevara y Padilla
1583 - 1592
Carlo d'Aragona Tagliavia
Viceroy of
Sicily (1566-68 &
1571-77), & Catalonia (1581-1582).
1592 - 1595
Juan Fernández de Velasco
Duke of Frías.
1595
Don Pedro de Padilla
Interim governor. Governor of Oran & Mazalquivir
(1585-89).
1595 - 1600
Juan Fernández de Velasco
Returned to office after defeat to
France at Fontaine-Française.
1600 - 1610
Pedro Enríquez de Acevedo
Count of Fuentes. Viceroy
Naples. Gov
Spanish Netherlands. Died.
1600
Not long after being replaced as governor of the Spanish Netherlands due to
his excessive severity, Pedro Enríquez arrives in Milan to create fear
amongst the nobles of northern Italy. He oversees the building of the Forte
di Fuentes, a powerful fortress on the shore of Lake Como, to defend Milan
from the Grisons of the easternmost canton of
Switzerland.
1610 - 1612
Juan Fernández de Velasco
Duke of Frías. Third term of office.
1612 - 1616
Juan de Mendoza
Viceroy of Navarre (1620-1623).
1616 - 1618
Pedro Álvarez de Toledo
Prince of Montalbano. Duke of Fernandina.
1618 - 1625
Gómez Suárez de Figueroa
Duke of Feria.
Viceroy of Valencia (1615-18), & Catalonia (1629-30).
1625
The First Genoese-Savoyard War is part of the greater Thirty Years'
War (1618-1648). Savoyard
forces join those of France
and the Netherlands
to besiege Genoa, the capital of the eponymous republic which lies on Milan's
southern border, while the rest of its lands suffer occupation by the invaders.
Spain sends a major
naval expedition to relieve Genoa, which it does. The Genoese republic is
restored and they and the Spanish turn the tables, invading Piedmont and
securing the overland supply route between northern Italy and the Spanish
Netherlands, known as the Spanish Road. The war ends in a stalemate with
the Treaty of Monçon.
Before taking up the post of governor of Milan in 1625,
Gonzalo Fernandez de Córdoba successfully defeated the
mercenary forces of Ernst von Mansfeld and Christian of
Brunswick at the Battle of Fleurus in 1622, part of the
Thirty Years' War
1625 - 1629
Gonzalo Fernandez de Córdoba
Prince of Maratea.
1629 - 1630
Ambrogio Spinola
Died.
1630 - 1631
Álvaro de Bazán
1631 - 1633
Gómez Suárez de Figueroa
Duke of Feria. Second term of office.
1633 - 1634
Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand
Son of Phillip III of
Spain.
Governor of Spanish Netherlands (1634).
Viceroy of Navarre, &
Sardinia (1682).
Governor of Galicia.
1691 - 1698
Diego Dávila Mesía y Guzmán
1698 - 1706
Prince Charles Henry
Count of Lorraine-Vaudemont.
1702 - 1715
Spain is involved in the
War of Succession as
Austria,
Britain,
and Portugal
dispute the Bourbon accession. Milan falls to Austria as early as 1706,
allowing Austrian domination in northern Italy. The conclusion of the war
sees Spain giving up Milan,
Naples,
Sardinia,
and the Spanish Netherlands (modern
Belgium) to Austria (to become
known as the Austrian Netherlands), and
Sicily to the duchy
of Savoy. The Papal States
are forced to hand over the territories of Parma and Piacenza to Austria,
a definite blow to the papacy's prestige. Philip, duke of Anjou, is
recognised as the Bourbon King Philip V of Spain, but only on the condition
that the Bourbon crowns of Spain and
France can never be
united under a single ruler. Austria becomes the dominant power in Italy.
Austrian Governors of the Duchy of Milan AD 1706 - 1796
Austria replaced
Spain as the dominant
power in Italy as a direct result of the War of Spanish Succession. Milan
fell to Austria as early as 1706, allowing Austrian domination in northern
Italy. Austrian nobles ruled
Naples. Austrian
governors replaced Spanish governors in the duchy of Milan, and Austria
gained control of Sardinia
(briefly), before it had to be handed over to Savoy.
This made the Savoyards much more important players in Italian politics,
ultimately overseeing its unification.
With Milan being one of the most important cities in northern Italy, it
essentially became Austria's capital just as it had been one of Spain's
major centres, and its governors were amongst the most senior figures in the
peninsula, frequently being related to the Austrian
Holy Roman Emperor
himself.
King
Philip V of Spain
is unhappy with the arrangements set at the end of the War of Succession
and occupies Sardinia and
Sicily,
triggering the War of the Quadruple Alliance. The war ends in 1719,
and as part of the Treaty of The Hague of 1720, the duke of
Savoy gains Sardinia
and is promoted to the rank of king.
Austria
gains the important island of Sicily in return.
1717 - 1719
Prince Maximilian Karl
Count of Löwenstein–Wertheim. Died.
1719 - 1725
Count Girolamo Colloredo
1725 - 1734
Count Wirich Philipp von Daun
Austrian
field-marshal. Former governor of Austrian Netherlands.
1734 - 1736
As part
of the wider War of the Polish Succession, Milan is occupied by the
Savoyard kingdom of
Sardinia. The conclusion
of the conflict sees a return of
Austrian
officials to Milan while
Naples and
Sicily are gained
by the Bourbons of
Spain. The Spanish Philip
V reunites his possessions as the kingdom of the
Two Sicilies and gives
them to a younger son under an agreement that states that the kingdom will not
be reunited with Spain. In exchange,
Holy Roman Emperor
Charles VI gains the duchy of Parma in addition to his existing Italian
possessions.
1736 - 1743
Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun
Austrian
field-marshal. Former governor of
Sicily (1732).
1743 - 1745
Prince Georg Christian von Lobkowitz
1745
Again as part of a wider war, this time the War of the Austrian Succession,
Spanish troops seize
Milan under the command of Captain General Jean Thierry du Mont, count of
Gages. As an occupying authority, he is shown in red,
below.
The French attempted to invade Savoy-Piedmont as part of the War
of the Austrian Succession, resulting in the disastrous Battle
of Assietta in which the French were massacred and their
commander, Chevalier de Belle-Isle, was killed
1745 - 1746
Captain General Jean Thierry du Mont
Count of Gages.
Spanish commander of
occupied Milan.
1745 - 1746
Austrian
forces rally, and retake the duchy on 18 March 1746. Furthermore, they
defeat the
Spanish at Piacenza on 16 June 1746 and Tidone
on 10 August 1746, securing their hold on Milan.
1745 - 1747
Gian Luca Pallavicini
Official
Austrian
governor during
Spanish occupation of
1745.
1747 - 1750
Count Ferdinand Bonaventura von Harrach
1750 - 1754
Gian Luca Pallavicini
1754 - 1771
Francis III
Duke of Modena & Reggio. Administrator of
Austrian
Lombardy.
1754 - 1765
Archduke Peter Leopold
Titular duke. Later grand duke of Tuscany &
HRE Leopold II (1790).
The Savoyard kingdom of
Sardinia joins the
First Coalition against the
French
First Republic, but this is defeated by Napoleon Bonaparte. Five days after
the Battle of Lodi, 10 May 1796, Sardinia is forced to sign the Treaty of
Paris. The French are given free passage through Piedmont so that they can
invade Italy. Napoleon also creates two republican states, one on each side
of the River Po in northern Italy. These are the
Cispadane republic (to the
south) and the Transpadane republic (to the north).
Cispadane & Transpadane Republics of Italy AD 1796 - 1797
Having already swept into north-western Italy, the armies of republican
France under
Napoleon Bonaparte quickly secured territory around the River Po and organised
two provisional states so that recruits to bolster the army could be secured.
Both states were organised along the same lines as France, in the form of
republics under the administrative control of a directory. The first Italian
military units were quickly formed, which is what the French really needed
ahead of their confrontation with
Austria
as they pushed eastwards.
The territory of the Cispadane republic on the southern side of the River Po
encompassed the former duchy of Modena and territory from the Papal States,
and consisted of Bologna, Ferrara, Modena (its capital), and Reggio Emilia. The
territory of the Transpadane republic on the northern side of the River Po
was centred around the recently conquered and occupied duchy of Milan. Both
republics were essentially temporary measures until the fluid political and
military situation resolved itself, and neither lasted for more than
thirteen months.
1797
Napoleon Bonaparte, leader of the
French
First Republic begins campaigning against
Austria
in northern Italy, starting with the Battle of Rivoli on 14-15 January. His
forces have now been bolstered by new Italian units, and north-western Italy
is now a republican extension of France itself. The Treaty of Leoben is signed
with Austria on 17 April, which leads to the loss for Austria of the Austrian
Netherlands and Lombardy, but which gains it the Venetian
territories of Dalmatia and
Istria in return.
The Transpadane republic gains the rest of conquered Venice and the Leoben
treaty is confirmed and extended by the Treaty of Campo Formio, which is
signed on 17 October 1797.
Napoleon commands at the Battle of Rivoli, 14-15
January 1797, the first French campaign in Italy
against Austria
1797
With events in northern Italy moving at lightening pace, Napoleon adds the
former duchy of Modena to the Transpadane republic, detaching it from the
neighbouring Cispadane on 19 May. Just a month later, on 29 June, Napoleon
reshuffles his northern Italian territories, eventually merging the Transpadane and the
Cispadane together to form the greater
Cisalpine republic.
Cisalpine Republic of Italy AD 1797 - 1802
Republican France
began the conquest of
Austria's
northern Italian territories in 1797, after gaining free passage through
Piedmont. Two client republics were created out of conquered territory in
north-western Italy and they were named the
Cispadane and Transpadane republics. A
little over a year later, on 29 June, the Transpadane republic became the
Cisalpine republic, again formed on French republican lines, with a
directory handling administrative control. Its territory was initially
divided into eleven departments and, on 27 July 1797, the Cispadine
republic was merged within it, with the capital located in Milan.
The republic's territory encompassed both sides of the River Po, and
included Bologna, Ferrara, Milan, Modena, Reggio Emilia, and western
Venice.
1797
Austria acknowledges the new political situation in northern Italy with
its signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio, which is
signed on 17 October 1797. In exchange, Austria is confirmed in its
possession of the Venetian
territories of Dalmatia and
Istria.
1798
French General Joubert
occupies Savoy's capital at Turin
and forces King Charles Emanuel IV of
Sardinia to
abdicate his Savoyard duchy and retire to Sardinia. Piedmont is united to
France.
French troops occupied Turin in 1798, depriving the Savoyard
kingdom of Sardinia of the greater part of its mainland
territory
In the same year, Rome is
occupied by force and a Roman republic is proclaimed (1798-1799), using the
territory of the Papal States. The pope is required to renounce his temporal
authority, and when he refuses he is taken prisoner. He is carried off into
captivity and dies shortly after his arrival in Valence.
1799 - 1800
The Second Coalition is formed by
Austria and Russia against
France. Piedmont
is captured when the allies take Turin, and the Cisalpine republic is
dissolved when it is occupied by Austrians and Russians under General
Suvurov. A provisional authority is appointed under Count Luigi Cocastelli.
With French
forces advancing back into Italy, Cocastelli and the allied forces withdraw
on 30 May 1800. Just two weeks later, on 14 June, the Second Coalition is
effectively destroyed by an
Austrian
defeat at the Battle of Marengo. The French victory re-secures their client
republics in the
Netherlands
and Italy, although Napoleon has already restored the Cisalpine republic, on
4 June.
One of Napoleon's most brilliant achievements was his Italian
campaign, which ended with the Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800
- Austria was ejected from Northern Italy and French power there
was now unquestioned
1801
Austria surrenders to France and signs the Treaty of Lunéville on 9
February 1801. As a result, the Cisalpine republic's territory expands
eastwards, reaching the River Adige and the border of Austrian-controlled
north-eastern Italy.
1802
In January, the consuls decide to change the republic's name when Napoleon
Bonaparte has himself elected as its president. The
Italian Republic is born.
Italian Republic AD 1802 - 1805
The Italian Republic was a short-lived successor to the
French-controlled
Cisalpine republic. It encompassed
large areas of northern Italy, essentially Lombardy in the farther north and
the Romagna area around
Rome. It was entirely
subservient to the French First Republic under Napoleon Bonaparte, changing
its constitution to allow Napoleon to become its president at the same time
as it changed its name. The capital at Milan was retained.
The president of the Italian republic, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of
France, is crowned
king of Italy at a ceremony in Milan, thereby raising the republic to a
kingdom.
Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy AD 1805 - 1814
The kingdom was proclaimed on 17 March 1805, and Napoleon Bonaparte was personally
crowned king of Italy at a ceremony in Milan in May 1805 using the ancient iron
crown of Lombardy. The ceremony took place just a year after he had proclaimed
himself emperor of the French.
His stepson and adopted son, Eugène de Beauharnais, was created viceroy of the
kingdom and it was he who remained in effective control during the near-decade
of the kingdom's existence. Napoleon also changed the constitution to ensure
his descendents would inherit the throne.
The creation of the kingdom consolidated the French acquisitions of territory from
Austria in
Italy, namely the duchies of Mantua, Milan, and Modena, areas of the
Papal States, the western
section of the republic of Venice,
and the province of Novara in Piedmont. On 1 May 1805, the remainder of
Venice was added, along with Dalmatia and
Istria.
1805 - 1814
Eugène de
Beauharnais
Viceroy, and
adopted son of Emperor Napoleon of
France.
1805
The Third Coalition is formed against
France so, in a swift campaign,
Napoleon marches east and, in October, the outnumbered
Austrian
army of General Mack surrenders to him without battle at Ulm in Bavaria. The
French go on to occupy Vienna. On 2 December, Napoleon defeats large armies
of Austrians and Russians
at Austerlitz, and the coalition lies in ruins.
Bavaria
is raised to a kingdom by Napoleon. However, at sea, the Battle of Trafalgar
proves once and for all
Britain's supremacy, pounding the French and their
Spanish
allies in a crushing defeat.
1806
The Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies is conquered in southern Italy and
the Napoleonic kingdom of
Naples is
created in its place, incorporating much of
Benevento. Napoleon
also heavily defeats Prussia
and the Fourth Coalition, and liberates Prussia's holdings
in Poland, forming
them into an Imperial satellite state.
1808 - 1814
With
relations between
French
Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and the
Pope deteriorating rapidly in
1808, Rome is occupied by a division of French troops. The following year
the remaining Papal States are annexed to the French-controlled kingdom of Italy,
including ancient Spoleto.
When Pius VII subsequently excommunicates Napoleon, the French capture
Castel Sant'Angelo, and a French officer breaks into the papal residence and
kidnaps the pope himself. The pope remains a French captive for six years,
being moved around Europe to various holding points.
1810
Following a further
Austrian
defeat in 1809, at the Battle of Wagram,
Bavaria
agrees to grant the Tyrol to Italy, while
Istria, Dalmatia and
Ragusa are incorporated into the new
Illyrian
Provinces.
Eugène de Beauharnais led his Italian Corp over the River Niemen
as part of Napoleon Bonaparte's Grande Armée and his invasion of
Russia in 1812
1814
Emperor Napoleon abdicates the thrones of
France and Italy,
hoping that his infant son, Napoleon II, prince of Rome, will be allowed to
succeed him in Italy. Eugène de Beauharnais prepares to defend the kingdom
against an
Austrian
invasion, but an insurrection in Milan destroys his bid to secure the throne
for either Napoleon II or himself. The Great Electors disband the Senate and
call for Austrian protection. Carlo Verri heads a 'Provisional Regence of
Government' and Eugène surrenders on 23 April. He is exiled to
Bavaria.
1814
Carlo Verri
President of the
Provisional Regence of Government.
1814
Carlo Verri's short-lived Regence is overshadowed by the
Austrian
imperial commission.
1814
Annibale
Sommariva
Austrian imperial
commissioner of Lombardy, Apr-May.
1814 - 1815
Count Heinrich
Joseph von Bellegarde
Austrian supreme imperial
commissioner of Lombardy.
1815
Austrian
control of northern Italy is confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. The
kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia is
established under the direct control of the emperor, ending any thoughts
of regional self-governance or even independence.
Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia AD 1815 - 1861
With the abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte from the thrones of
France and Italy
the scene was set for a renewal of
Austrian
control of northern Italy. Despite a brief threat posed by Eugène de
Beauharnais, the Austrians were able to occupy Milan on 28 April 1814, two
days after appointing Annibale Sommariva as the imperial commissioner of
Lombardy. A month later, on 25 May, Count Heinrich von Bellegarde assumed
full control of Lombardy as supreme imperial commissioner. On 30 May the
Treaty of Paris officially handed the remains of the kingdom of
Italy to Austria, minus Piedmont,
which was returned to Savoy,
Romagna, which went back to the
Papal States, Modena,
which was restored to the archduke of Austria-Este, and
Istria. The
remainder, Lombardy and Venice,
were combined into an Austrian state which fell under the direct control of
the Austrian emperor and was administered by viceroys.
Corsica was restored
to France while Sardinia continued to be held by the Savoyards.
1815
Prince Heinrich
XV
Prince of Reuss-Plauen. Governor of Milan. Died 1824.
1815 - 1816
Count Heinrich
Joseph von Bellegarde
Former supreme imperial commissioner of Lombardy. Died
1845.
Archduke Anton Victor is the son of former
Austrian
Emperor Leopold II and the first hereditary master of the
Teutonic
Knights. He had also served as the last archbishop-elector of Cologne
and prince-bishop of Münster before those posts had been abolished in 1803.
1818 - 1848
Archduke Rainer
Joseph
Brother. Died 1853.
1848 - 1849
In a
year of European revolutions
(France,
Hessen-Darmstadt,
Ireland,
Liechtenstein, and
Wallachia also
experience problems), a popular uprising known as the 'Five Days of Milan'
drives out the
Austrians
on 22 March 1848 largely, it is said, due to the resentment built up by
Archduke Rainer's tax collections. Milan becomes the seat of the Provisional
Government of Lombardy. On the following day, Venice experiences a similar
uprising, with the Provisional Government of Venice being formed. King
Charles Albert of Savoy
briefly goes to war against Austria in what is a short-lived encounter.
He is defeated. In the following year he tries again and is similarly
defeated in quick fashion, but the two attempts become known as the First
War of (Italian) Independence.
1848 - 1857
Johann Wenzel
Count Radetzky of Radetz. A fair-minded viceroy. Died
1858.
1852
Count
Camillo Benso di Cavour is installed as the new, liberal minister of the
Savoyard kingdom of
Sardinia, and the
kingdom quickly becomes a torchbearer for
Italian
unification.
Garibaldi in his distinctive red jacket hails victory during the
Italian War of Unification in which Austria was removed of its
dominance of the country and a single Italian kingdom was forged
in its place
1857 - 1859
Archduke
Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph
Brother of
Emperor Francis Joseph. Later emperor of
Mexico.
1859
The Second Italian War of Independence sees Lombardy taken from
Austrian
hands. The change in ownership is ratified in the same year by the Treaty
of Zurich, creating the beginnings of a unified kingdom of
Italy.
Venice is captured in 1866,
formally terminating the Austrian kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
Kingdom of Italy (House of Savoy) AD 1861 - 1946
During 1859-1861, a politically fragmented Italy was forged by nationalist Giuseppe
Garibaldi into a single kingdom. His War of Unification freed Italy from
Austrian
control. The process of reunification had effectively begun with the
Congress of Vienna in 1815, although it meant that Austrian control over
large areas of Italy had to be endured for another two generations, along
with the restored and fragmented regional authorities which included the
fiercely protective Papal
States. It took a long time before even those who supported reunification
could agree on how to achieve it. One of the most feared (and soon outlawed)
revolutionary groups was that of the Carbonari, the coal burners. They
almost succeeded in assassinating Napoleon III of the
French Second Empire
in 1858 for his allegedly turning his back on them.
With support growing, and with a secret agreement in place with France,
the war soon achieved its aims. Once reunification had been achieved, the
conservatively supportive Savoyard king of
Sardinia became king
of Italy (a title previously held by the
Holy Roman Emperors), gaining Parma,
Sicily & Naples,
and Spoleto, while at the same time
handing Savoy to France as promised. In 1866 Venice
was annexed to the new Italy, while the Papal States were also seized
by the kingdom in 1870.
Initially the capital of this newly unified state was at Savoy's old capital
of Turin (between 1861-1864), but was moved to Florence, where it remained until
the capture of Rome. In 1861, the kingdom was set up as a constitutional monarchy
with a representative parliamentary body. During the Mussolini years, that was
swept aside for a single party fascist state, between 1928-1943, and it was
this that essentially sealed the kingdom's end three years later.
Prussia fights
the Austro-Prussian War against
Austria,
essentially as a decider to see which of the two powers will be dominant in central
Europe. Prussia gains Italy as an ally in the south and several minor German states
in the north. Austria and its southern German allies are crushed in just seven weeks
(giving the conflict its alternative title of the Seven Weeks' War), and
Prussia is now unquestionably dominant. Bismark oversees the seizure of four of
Austria's northern German allies, the kingdom of Hanover, the electorate of
Hessen-Kassel,
and the duchy of
Nassau, along
with the free city of Frankfurt. Prussia also subsumes Schleswig and Holstein
and
Saxe-Lauenberg, while despite being defeated in its own theatre of the war,
Italy gains Venice thanks to Prussia's dominance,
completely terminating the Austrian kingdom of
Lombardy-Venetia.
1870 - 1871
Italy
achieves full union under the House of
Savoy. In 1871,
Rome becomes its capital for
the first time since the collapse of the Western
Roman empire (although even
then, Ravenna had been the capital for some considerable time).
The delegates of the 1871 Plenipotentiary Conference in Rome
pose for a group photo, shortly after Italy achieved full
unification under the House of Savoy
Italy
and France disagree
over their respective colonial expansionism so, seeing an opportunity to isolate
France, Bismarck welcomes Italy into a Triple Alliance with the
Prussian-dominated
German empire and
Austria.
Italian relations with Berlin now enter their best period, although Vienna
remains icily formal with its former subject.
1900
Umberto
is assassinated by an
Italo-American
anarchist named Gaetano Bresci in Monza. The reason is that Bresci wanted to
avenge the people killed during the Bava-Beccaris massacre in Milan in May 1898.
Umberto is laid to rest in the Pantheon in Rome, alongside his father.
1900 - 1946
Victor
Emanuel III
Son of Umberto I.
Abdicated.
1911 - 1914
Italy
invades
OttomanLibya
in 1911. An Italian protectorate is declared in 1912, and the region is
governed by Italy in this fashion until 1934, when the colony of Libya is
formed.
Also in 1912, Albania, one
of Europe's poorest states, became unexpectedly independent after the
Albanian Uprising of 1912 and the First Balkan War (1912-1913). In
November 1913, Albanian
pro-Ottoman
forces offer the Albanian throne to the Ottoman war minister, Izzet Pasha,
but the provisional government executes his representative. In 1914,
Austria-Hungary
and Italy are able to select the
German Prince Wied
as the first prince of an independent Albania.
1915 - 1919
In
the secret Treaty of London of 26 April 1915, Italy agrees to abandon its allies,
Germany and
Austria-Hungary,
declaring war on them instead. Italy has been promised territory in compensation
for its change of allegiance, which will certainly be at Austria's expense. With
the collapse of Austria's empire at the end of the First World War, and the
agreement of a ceasefire on 3 November 1918, Italy inherits the province of
Istria. The victory
elevates Italy to a major power and gains it a permanent seat at the League
of Nations. In 1919, Italy also gains the Canal Valley region of
Carinthia
from Austria under the terms of the Treaty of St Germain.
1922
The
fascist leader Benito Mussolini becomes dictator of Italy and has the support
(officially, at least) of the king. He also seeks to heal the breach between the
Papacy and the state, an
act that will strengthen his position, but this takes until 1929 to achieve.
Totalitarian rule is established over the country and political and intellectual
opposition is crushed.
1929
The
Pope and Mussolini
sign the Lateran Treaty, finally settling the breach between the Italian
government and the papacy that has existed since the seizure of the Papal
States in 1870. The treaty establishes the independent Vatican City State.
1936 - 1939
In
1936 Italy formally annexes
Ethiopia
after a short military campaign in which mustard gas is used. For much
of the Spanish
Civil War both
Germany and Italy
supply weapons and even aircraft to General Franco's forces.
1939 - 1941
Italy
invades and occupies
Albania
in 1939. The following year it demands to be allowed to station troops in
Greece, but the Greek king
refuses. The resultant Greco-Italian War is a victory for Greece, with
southern Albania also being occupied. Nazi
Germany is forced
to intervene, invading Greece in 1941 and capturing it. In the same year, the
USA
and Cuba
enter the war against Italy and on the side of the allies.
Mussolini (fourth from the left) and his chief henchmen were
hung by their heels by the partisans, along with Mussolini's
mistress, Claretta Petacci (to the right of him)
1943 - 1945
The
Italian fleet surrenders at Valetta, Malta, on 10 September 1943, giving
Britain's
Royal Navy control of the Mediterranean. With the collapse and surrender
of the Italians, northern and central Italy is occupied by Nazi
Germans.
Mussolini is summarily executed the day after he is captured by communist
partisans on 27 April 1945, as he attempts to escape to
Switzerland.
1946
Umberto II
Son. Succeeded 9
May, abdicated 12 June.
1946
A
constitutional referendum is held in the country and Italians take the
decision to form a republic. The king is forced into exile as punishment for
his support of Mussolini.
Modern Italy AD 1946 - Present Day
The modern country of Italy occupies the entire Italian peninsula in Southern
Europe, along with the major islands of
Sardinia and
Sicily. It is neighboured to the
north-west by France,
to the north by Switzerland and
Austria, to the
north-east by Slovenia, with
Albania the closest
country to it along the Adriatic Sea,
Tunisia
approximately 150 kilometres to the south-west of Sicily, and
Corsica just
off the western coast, across the Tyrrhenian Sea.
With the kingdom of Italy fatally undermined
by its association with fascism, the Italian monarchy was formally brought to
an end on 12 June 1946. King Umberto II ruled for just thirty-three days before
he stepped down and handed power to the the prime minister as interim head of
state. Umberto left Italy, never to return, living for another thirty-seven
years and becoming 'Europe's grandfather' at many royal weddings over the
years. After his death a succession dispute arose concerning the next most
senior claimant to the lost Italian throne, although most authorities sided
with Victor Emanuel.
The Italian republic was formed in place of the kingdom, with a referendum
being held on 2 June 1946 to decide the fact. Within Italian territory, two
independent enclaves remain, vestiges of Italy's politically fragmented
history from the time of the collapse of the
Roman empire onwards.
Vatican City is the modern remnants of the
Papal States, while San
Marino is a republic with origins as far back as AD 301.
Successive claimants to the Italian throne are given a shaded background, while
rival claimants are shown in green text.
1946 - 1983
Umberto II
Exiled king of Italy. Died 18 March.
1947 - 1949
Italy loses sections of its eastern border to
Yugoslavia under the
terms of the Paris Peace Treaties. The following year, the first
governmental elections are held with the threat of a possible Communist
takeover serving as an incentive to ensure the preservation of democracy. In
1949, Italy joins Nato. Despite the country's now strongly-established
democratic credentials, the political stability of each successive
government is precarious, and several dozen of them come and go during the
second half of the twentieth century.
1957
Italy is a founding member of the European Economic Community, which later
evolves into the European Union.
With tourism being one of Italy's biggest industries, the slow
sinking of the islets upon which Venice sits presents a serious
problem
The hereditary king of Italy, Victor
Emanuel, returns to Italy, fifty-six years after the House of
Savoy had been
forced into exile.
2006 - Present
Prince Amedeo of Savoy
Cousin. Duke of
Aosta. Born 27 Sep 1943. Rival claimant.
2006
Prince Amedeo of Savoy is the son of Aimone of Spoleto, Mussolini's puppet
king of Croatia
(1941-1943). In an attempt to secure the title for himself, Amedeo declares
himself head of the House of Savoy and duke of Savoy on 7 July 2006,
claiming that Victor Emanuel had lost his claim when he married without
Umberto's permission in 1971. The question of why he didn't make the claim
in 1971 has not been answered.
