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Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Non-Dynastic / Anarchy (AD 695-717)

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From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

The emperors of this period belonged to no dynasty ('Non-Dynastic'), obtaining brief power in a disturbed period which has been termed the 'Anarchy' (or 'First Anarchy'). The Islamic empire was sweeping through Eastern Roman North African possessions at this time, having already seized large territories in the Near East.

The preceding 'Dynasty of Heraclius' had been removed by banishing the reckless young Emperor Justinian II Rinotmetus. Losses in North Africa had been mounting, the 'Exarchate of Africa' was slipping out of direct imperial control, and Constantinople itself had even been besieged by Arabs in the late 660s or early 670s.

While Justinian sought refuge with the Khazars on the Pontic steppe from where he could plot his eventual comeback with help from the Danubian Bulgars, Constantinople endured the short reign of Leontius and then two decades of anarchy. Africa was lost, although the larger part of the Eastern Roman army was able to evacuate by sea.

On their way back the fleeing disaffected generals recruited Apsimarius, commander of the Aegean fleet, so that when they reached Constantinople they could depose Leontius and repeat a cycle which would continue until 717.

The empire's organisation visibly began to break up. Both the state and the city of Constantinople were neglected and decaying, civil education was disappearing, and military discipline dissolved. Great cities fell one by one: Tyana in 710, Amasia in 712, and Antioch-in-Pisidia in 713. Only in 716-717 did Eastern Roman resistance return.

In the seventh century the regional governors of the themes in effect had became provincial military commanders - strategoi as the empire moved onto a more permanent war footing. They were directly responsible to the emperor himself, and the divisive top-level position of praetorian prefect was abolished.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813, Cyril Mango & Roger Scott (1997), from the World Heritage Encyclopaedia, from An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, Peter B Golden (1992), from The Bulgarians: from pagan times to the Ottoman conquest, David Marshall Lang (Westview Press, 1976), and from External Links: History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Byzantine Empire, CWC Oman (Fisher Unwin, 1892, and available via Heritage History).)

695 - 698

Replaced the Heraclids. Captured & executed.

695 - 697

The Islamic wali of Ifriqiyya and the Maghreb, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man, captures Carthage and the Eastern Roman administration retreats, possibly to Caralis on Sardinia. This gives the Arabs a firm base from which to launch more sustained attacks on Sicily.

The Islamic empire conquered Eastern Roman Carthage through a series of campaigns over the space of half a century, with Roman control over the region gradually weakening during a series of military defeats

697 - 698

Despite the arrival of an Eastern Roman fleet to retake Carthage, it is permanently lost to the Islamic empire following defeat at the Battle of Carthage. The new Islamic territory eventually evolves into the modern countries of Tunisia and Algeria.

The larger part of the army of Africa escapes by sea. On their way home the officers enlist Tiberius Apsimarus, commander of the imperial fleet in the Aegean, proclaiming him emperor when he joins them. The troops of Leontius betrayed him and Constantinople is taken by the rebels. Leontius is captured, disfigured, and confined to a monastery.

698 - 705

Captured & executed.

704 - 705

The deposed and banished former emperor, Justinian II Rinotmetus, secures help and support from the powerful Danubian Bulgars to reclaim his throne. He does so in 705, with the Bulgars riding into Constantinople behind their khan, Tervel. Leontius and Tiberius and many of their supporters are executed.

Whilst Arabic was selected (or enforced) as the official language of Egypt, Coptic - the language of the church which would have been heard in the Church of St Mary at the Monastery of the Syrins at Wadi Natrun pictured here - was retained for liturgical services and remains in use today

705 - 711

Restored with Bulgar support. Captured & executed.

705

Armenia is lost to the Islamic empire. In the same year, one of many Berber or Moorish raids on Sardinia is documented for the first time. The raids are forcing the island's legates to become increasingly self-reliant as it becomes clear that the empire is unable to protect them.

708

Having had a change of heart about the territory which he had formerly ceded to the Bulgars, Justinian Rinotmetus now attempts to militarily reclaim them. Khan Tervel puts him firmly in his place with a Bulgarian victory at the Battle of Anchialus (close to today's Pomorie in south-eastern Bulgaria).

709

The exarchate of Ravenna is further weakened, this time by the Eastern Roman emperor himself. A vengeful Justinian II sends an expedition against Ravenna, commanded by the patrician, Theodore.

The reason is not clear, but it may be related to a rebellion which had involved some of the city's inhabitants and which had dethroned Justinian himself in 695. Theodore the patrician invites all of Ravenna's leading citizens to attend a banquet, during which they are captured as they arrive and thrown onto a ship to be taken back to Constantinople.

This coin which was issued during the restored reign of Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian II is a gold solidus from Constantinople, with a facing bust of Christ (left) holding the gospels and raising a right hand in benediction, and a bust of Justinian holding a cross potent and globus cruciger

The city itself is subsequently sacked. Exarch Theophylactus is apparently not involved either in prosecuting any of the arrested citizens or defending them against the action, but he is still replaced in the following year.

c.710

Prior to his accession as Emperor Leo III, Leo the Isaurian is sent on a diplomatic mission to bribe the Alani into severing links with the pro-Islamic kingdom of Abasgia. The mission proves successful. Unfortunately his master - the increasingly despotic Justinian II - is dethroned and executed in the following year by the rebel general, Philippicus Bardanes.

711 - 713

General. Rebelled and captured the throne. Deposed.

713

Philippicus Bardanes is not a man for all seasons. He has enjoyed the good life far too much. After two years of little progress on the military front, a coup places on the throne his own secretary, Anastasius.

Shown here are boths sides of a gold solidus which was issued by Philippicus Bardanes during his short time on the Eastern Roman throne, with the obverse (left) displaying him wearing a short beard, loros, and crown, holding a globus cruciger and eagle-tipped sceptre which is surmounted by a cross

713 - 716

Secretary. Deposed and made to take holy orders.

716

With the empire's organisation visibly breaking down and its enemies making further advances on all fronts, Anastasius is overthrown by the soldiers of the Obsequian theme. They crown Theodosius of Adrammytium, a respectable but obscure commissioner of taxes.

716 - 717

Commissioner of taxes. Stood down for Isaurians.

717

One of the few military officers who has built any reputation of note is now general of the Anatolic theme (Anatolia). Early in 717 he marches towards the Bosphorus with the intent of taking the imperial throne.

Theodosius allows his army to lose one engagement against the opposing troops before convening his court, pointing out the impeding Islamic invasion, and voluntarily stepping down in favour of the general. The new emperor is Leo III, founder of the Isaurian dynasty.

The obverse of a gold solidus which was issued by Leo III 'the Isaurian', named as such for his Isaurian (Syrian) origins, who brought solidity to the empire's defences but who sparked a century of internal conflict through his banning of the use of religeous images (iconography)