European Kingdoms

Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Dynasty of Heraclius (AD 610-695)

Rome Aquitani Tribes Canaanite States Celtic Tribes Classical Colonies Germanic Tribes Iberian Tribes Mesopotamian States Syrian States

From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

The 'Dynasty of Heraclius' succeeded the highly effective 'Dynasty of Justinian' and the short-lived 'Non-Dynastic' period under Phocas. The former had been hobbled in real terms only by the serious 'Plague of Justinian' which did so much longer term damage to military resources. The empire still flourished, experiencing a golden age under Justinian which saw territory expanded into Western Europe.

After Justinian's death much of that expansion slowly began to be reversed. The empire soon found itself in a constant state of financial difficulty. In 602 General Phocas was so dissatisfied with the state of affairs that he usurped the imperial throne after being sent to Constantinople in the role of spokesman for rebellious troops.

Maurice and his six sons were executed and Phocus became the first Eastern Roman non-dynastic ruler in his brief attempt to resolve the situation. The event proved to be a disaster for the empire. It sparked a devastating war with the Sassanids and a Jewish revolt in Palestine.

Other mistakes or missteps by an increasingly tyrannical Phocas encouraged a revolt by the son of the disaffected exarch of Africa. That son was Heraclius 'the Younger', emperor for the next three decades. He spent much of his reign in attempting to recover territory which had been lost to the Sassanids. He only just missed out on the Islamic invasion of Eastern Roman territory in 634.

From the seventh century onwards the regional dioceses became better known as themes following much-needed restructuring which leaned into the empire's pro-military reorganisation. In effect their governors became provincial military commanders - strategoi - who were directly responsible to the emperor himself, and the position of praetorian prefect was abolished.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813, Cyril Mango & Roger Scott (1997), from Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit, Volume 1, Ralph-Johannes Lilie, Claudia Ludwig, Thomas Pratsch, & Ilse Rochow, from the World Heritage Encyclopaedia, from the BBC series, Mary Beard's Ultimate Rome: Empire Without Limit, presented by Mary Beard and first screened between 27 April-18 May 2016, from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), and from External Links: History Extra, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Jewish Encyclopaedia, and History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Byzantine Empire (World History).)

610 - 641

Replaced a 'Non-Dynastic'. Son of Exarch Heraclius of Africa.

613 - 628

As part of the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628, the Battle of Antioch of 613 sees Emperor Heraclius defeated. The forces of Khusro II consolidate their recent gains and make further advances, entering Palestine. Caesarea Maritima is taken in 614, with Jerusalem falling soon after. But then a Christian revolt sees the city briefly changing hands before the Sassanids re-establish control.

The reign of Heraclius was one of modest success and great catastrophe during which large swathes of territory in North Africa and the Near East were lost while diplomacy and intrigue served to bring the Turkic tribes of the Black Sea coast under a degree of control (the emperor is pictured far right, beheading Khusro II of the Sassanid empire, although it was actually Khusro's own son who overthrew him)

Sassanid policy has changed by 617, from switching from Jewish support to Christian support. Internal pressure from Christian communities may be responsible. Between 622-627 the military situation changes. Heraclius gains the upper hand, driving the Sassanids back into Mesopotamia until the war comes to an end.

619 - 620

Following growing discontent with the emperor, the exarch of Ravenna, Eleutherius, notes the emperor's focus is on fighting the Sassanids and takes the opportunity to declare himself emperor. In 620 he marches on Rome, intent on making it his capital, but he is murdered by his own troops.

623 - 630

Now allied with the Western Göktürks on the steppe, Heraclius attacks the Sassanids as part of the Third Perso-Turkic War (627-630) to regain territory which includes Syria and Palestine which has been lost for a decade. His campaigns also return Armenia to Eastern Roman control.

As was often the case with Central Asian states which had been created by horseborne warriors on the sweeping steppe, the Göktürk khaganate swiftly incorporated a vast stretch of territory in its westwards expansion, whilst being hemmed in by the powerful Chinese dynasties its south-east and Siberia's uninviting tundra to the north (click or tap on map to view full sized)

The Sassanid ruler, Khusro, is overthrown in 628 by his own nobles following the defeats. This ends the ongoing warfare with the Eastern Romans, allowing Heraclius to enter Jerusalem in 630.

c.626 - c.641

Slavs which include the Croats are invited by Emperor Heraclius to help him fight the Avars. The dominance of the Avars is broken by their defeat at Constantinople, which also allows the Slav Kingdom between Carinthia and Moravia to flourish.

In the same period a similar tribal confederation also forms on the northern Black sea coast, that of Great Bulgaria, with both confederations possibly being part of a Roman-inspired chain of defences against the Avars.

The Croats receive their present-day lands to settle as a reward, but the Slav presence in Dalmatia and Istria leads to the destruction of churches, and Pope John IV, a Dalmatian, is forced to pay large sums of money to free prisoners. The relics of some of the more important Dalmatian saints are interred in Rome.

In AD 632, Qaghan Koubrat came to power as the head of an Onogur-Bulgar confederation on the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and three years later he was able to throw off Avar domination and found Great Bulgaria (click or tap on map to view full sized)

634 - 638

The Islamic invasion of the Eastern Roman region of Syria begins in 634. Arab troops emerge into the Levant from the southern deserts, surprising Roman forces which are stationed along the regular line of defence facing the Sassanids. Several battles are fought across the region until the Romans have been forced northwards.

Palestine and Phoenicia are conquered in 636 and 637 respectively. Mesopotamia is conquered from the Sassanids in 637, and Jerusalem falls in 638. Roman Syria, Egypt and Libya are taken in 638-640, and the Sassanids themselves are defeated in 642.

The scale of the defeat is such that the Romans are unable to mount any kind of retaliatory offensive. Syria quickly becomes the centre of the growing Islamic empire.

640 - 641

The invasion of Egypt begins in the later months of 640. An Islamic victory at the Battle of Heliopolis ends Roman control of much of the country, but the Babylon Fortress (in the region of modern-day Coptic Cairo) has to be besieged for several months before it surrenders.

Al-Fustat was the first capital of Islamic Egypt, built by Amr ibn al-As, but most of it was deliberately burned down in 1168 and the remains were absorbed into Cairo

The former Roman capital at Alexandria, capital of Egypt for a thousand years, surrenders a few months later and a peace treaty is signed in late 641 in the ruins of a palace in Memphis. Refugees pour into the 'Exarchate of Africa', alerting both Exarch Peter and Gregory 'the Patrician' to the seriousness of the problem.

641

Son. Ruled for 3-4 months. Died suddenly.

641

Younger half-brother and co-ruler. Later sole emperor.

641

Constantine III is the eldest son of Heraclius (not to be confused with Western Roman Emperor Constantine III of the early fifth century). Having already had some experience of governance as his father's junior caesar, his brief reign shows signs of delivering success to the empire.

He is initially supported by his younger half-brother, Heracleonas (sometimes shortened to Heracleon) but he dies unexpectedly, possibly from tuberculosis but perhaps instead poisoned. Heracleonas is swiftly removed from his new role as sole emperor.

Emperor Heraclius 'the Younger' is shown on this gold coin with his son and junior caesar, Heraclus Constantine (III), prior to the former's death and the latter's very brief reign

641

Inherited throne. Swiftly mutilated and banished to Rhodes.

641 - 668

Son of Constantine. Last to visit Rome. Last imperial consul (642).

645 - 646

Egypt is briefly re-conquered by Roman forces, but their victory is short-lived. They are defeated at the Battle of Nikiou and Egypt is secured by the Islamic empire for good.

In the following year, with the end of the Persian Marzban of eastern Armenia, the eastern state is fully reunited under Eastern Roman control as Western Armenia.

That same year, 646, continues the see-saw turmoil. Seemingly making the most of confusion in the empire due to the loss of Egypt and Libya in 639-640 to the Islamic empire, the 'Exarchate of Africa' is declared an independent state by its prefect, Gregory 'the Patrician'.

647 - 667

The troops of Gregory 'the Patrician' in the 'Exarchate of Africa' are severely defeated by the invading troops of the Islamic empire, and Gregory himself is killed in 648. The province appears to be occupied for perhaps a year or so before being abandoned in 649, allowing Constans II to regain some level of control there.

This light solidus was minted during the eventful reign of Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II, with his face on the obverse

The incident prompts changes elsewhere in the Eastern Roman hierarchy. Direct control of Sardinia is exchanged for a more localised form of government in which legates are appointed to control the regions, rather than leaving power concentrated in the hands of a lone individual.

653

The Islamic empire begins to threaten Armenia. Aided by the Eastern Romans, Armenia defends itself, but the Arab campaign continues northwards into the Caucasus under General Salman. He concentrates on the towns and settlements of the western coast of the Caspian Sea and on defeating the Khazars.

A description of this campaign is based on a manuscript by Ahmed-bin-Azami, and it mentions that '...Salman reached the Khazar town of Burgur... He continued and finally reached Bilkhar, which was not a Khazar possession, and camped with his army near that town, on rich meadows intersected by a large river'. This town is usually connected by historians to the proto-Bulgars.

Oguric-speaking warriors on the Pontic-Caspian steppe in the sixth century would have been largely indistinguishable from each other but, under Eastern Roman influence, some would have begun to resemble the Romans just like the eighth century Bulgars shown here

661

Emperor Constans II is highly interested in affairs in southern Italy, which causes him to move his capital to Syracuse on Sicily (leading ultimately to his assassination there in 668). He appoints a native of Naples, one Basil, as the new dux, the military commander of the city.

This is not the first dux to be appointed, but it seems to be the first about whom anything concrete is known, the previous incumbents being foreigners who had been forced to answer directly to the strategos of Sicily. Now Naples is its own master.

664

Unfortunately for the empire's security, the Berbers of the 'Exarchate of Africa' have slipped entirely out of imperial control, reducing the amount which can be gathered in taxes. Even worse, General Gennadius there rebels in 664, proclaiming Carthage to be independent of Constantinople.

Berbers with their superb horsemanship and guerrilla tactics were highly valued as auxiliary troops in the Roman army, particularly in their native North Africa where they excelled in desert combat

668 - 669

Armenian noble. Proclaimed in Sicily but largely ignored.

668 - 685

Son of Constans. Saved empire from Islamic conquest.

668 - 681

Brother. Deposed and mutilated by Constantine.

668 - 681

Brother. Deposed and mutilated by Constantine.

c.668 - 680

With Great Bulgaria disintegrating following a massive Khazar attack, one large group of between thirty to fifty thousand people head westwards from the Ergeni Hills (the Hippian Mountains on the north-western coast of the Caspian Sea), towards the northern coast of the Black Sea.

In time they reach an area to the north of the Danubian delta known as the Ongal (precise location unspecified), from where they launch annual raids into Eastern Roman territory.

674 - 677

Having been aided to an extent by an anti-imperial rebellion in Armenia, the Islamic empire besieges Constantinople (although recent study has attempted to revise the dates to 667-669). An outbreak of what is assumed to be smallpox along with a shortage of supplies defeats the siege.

In a rare defeat during the seventh century, the invading Arab army found itself unsuccessful when it tried to take the fortress of Old Dongola during its second attempt to capture the kingdom

680

The Bulgars along the Danube and their many Slav allied forces meet Emperor Constantine IV at the Battle of Ongal. The location, whilst unknown, is near the Black Sea coast (where lies naval support), approximately midway between Varna (in modern Bulgaria) and Odessa (in modern Ukraine).

The resultant Bulgar victory allows them to carve out the beginnings of a kingdom of Bulgaria which straddles the Danube in a broad oval between the Black Sea and Vidin. They expel recently-settled groups of Slavs (or at least their leaders - principally of the Antes tribe), and probably also conquer local tribes such as the Bastarnae, and any remnants of the Goths and the Huns.

680 - 681

The Sixth Council (Constantinople III) is held, having been called by Constantine IV. The Monotheletism which is supported by Constantinople is now condemned and suppressed despite the Pope's failure to win the emperor over to orthodoxy. The council heals the growing rift between Rome and the patriarch of Constantinople.

The Sixth Council was held during the period of Eastern Roman influence in Rome, but it did not prevent the Catholic church from condemning the religious practices of the Eastern Roman emperor

682

The region which makes up ancient Morocco in North Africa is lost to the Islamic empire, paving the way for the Idrisids to rule about a century later, the first Arab dynasty to govern the entirely of what is now known of as Morocco.

685 - 695

Son of Constantine. Banished. Sought refuge with Khazars.

686

An Islamic force led by Zoheir ibn Kais, wali of Ifriqiyya and the Maghreb, defeats a joint army of Eastern Romans of the 'Exarchate of Africa' and Berbers on the Qairawan plain which is commanded by Berber leader Khusalah. The victors are not strong enough to follow up their victory with territorial gains.

695

The bold but reckless Justinian is banished during a rebellion, having his nose slit when he is captured to earn him the epithet 'Rinotmetus' ('Slit-Nose', with disfiguration being enough to make an individual unsuitable to become emperor).

He seeks refuge with the Khazars, to be succeeded in Constantinople by the first of a series of 'Non-Dynastic' rulers of Constantinople, although the situation is unstable enough for him to regain the throne for himself for a short time in 705.