African Kingdoms

Carthage / Qarthadasht / Kiriyat Hadasht (Phoenician Colony) (North Africa)

Ancient Greek & Phoenician Cities & Colonies Bronze Age Anatolian States Canaanite States & Groups Persian & Greek Satrapies Rome

The identity of the Phoenicians was wrought during the Near East's climate-induced political upheavals of the thirteenth and twelfth centuries BC. Originally Canaanites, the descendants of groups which had previously populated much of the Levant, they became hemmed in on their long Mediterranean coastal strip by various more recent arrivals, such as the Israelites, Philistines, Sea Peoples, and Aramaeans.

Still relatively unscathed by the chaos, the Phoenicians quickly prospered in their fertile coastal home. Each city state was self-governed, or looked to one of its larger neighbours for support and alliances. Even so the Phoenicians worked towards a similar goal, with very little internecine strife.

They created a trading empire which stretched across the Mediterranean, founding as they went a crop of seasonal trading posts along the sea's northern and southern shores. Many of these posts gradually developed into colonies, thereby losing that initial archaeology with them rarely even being fully recorded by the Phoenicians themselves. The later cities are usually well-attested, however.

The conquest of the homeland in the seventh century BC by Assyria forced many of the colonies to develop into self-governing city states of their own. Phoenician Colonisation of ancient North Africa became more intense with the establishment of Carthage as an ancient 'North African Colony' on the modern Tunisian coast in the late ninth century BC.

A precise date is not available for its foundation, but a point is likely between about 843-813 BC, and possibly 814 BC can be selected when Elissa, sister of King Pumayyaton, fled Tyre (and see feature link for a complete list of Phoenician colonies).

Elissa was married to her uncle, the high priest of Heracles (Melqart), and as such they occupied the second highest position in Tyre after the king himself. Supported in his reign by the people but facing opposition from the aristocracy, the young Pygmalion had Elissa's husband murdered, at which point Elissa and her followers fled to Cyprus (possibly where they founded or occupied the settlement of Kition), and then to Carthage.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Geography, Strabo, the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, William Smith, from the Life of Apollonius of Tyana, from The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume III: AD 527-641, John R Martindale, A H M Jones, & John Morris (Cambridge University Press, 1992), from The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium: Niketas, Walter Emil Kaegi (Alexander P Kazhdan, Ed, Oxford University Press, 1991), from Unger's Bible Dictionary, Merrill F Unger (1957), from A Royal Dedicatory Inscription from Ekron, S Gitin, T Dothan, & J Naveh (Israel Exploration Journal 47, 1997), from The History of Esarhaddon (Son of Sennacherib) King of Assyria, BC 681-688, Ernest A Budge, from Easton's Bible Dictionary, Matthew George Easton (1897), from Egypt, Canaan and Israel in Ancient Times, Donald Redford (Princeton University Press, 1992), from Early Israel and the Surrounding Nations, A H Sayce, from The Amarna Letters, William L Moran, 1992, from the Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible, Geoffrey Wigoder (Gen Ed, 1986), from The Cambridge Ancient History, John Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from The History and Archaeology of Phoenicia, Hélène Sader (SBL Press, 2019), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Bible Atlas, and Carthage (Ancient History Encyclopaedia).)

c.814 - 760 BC

Sister of the king of Tyre. Colony founder.

814 BC

Carthage becomes a Phoenician Colony of Tyre when it is founded by Elissa, sister of the king of Tyre (as recorded by Virgil in Aeneid). The men of Utica greet their brother Phoenicians warmly, and the 'king of Libya', Iarbos, gives them free entry into his territory.

The city of Carthage existed in its original glory for at least four hundred and twenty-eight years before it was destroyed by the Romans - and possibly another two centuries before that as a developing colony which was founded by Phoenicians

He allows Elissa (whom the natives call Deido or Dido, the 'wandering one') to select the hill of Byrsa, upon which the city is built and is named as Qarthadasht, or 'new city' ('Carthage' is the name in its Latin form). Relations with Tyre are patched up within a generation or two of this event and it would appear that Tyre retains Carthage as a colony.

580 BC

A number of Greek settlements in Sicily, such as Syracuse, attempt to drive the Phoenicians from Motya and Panormus (Palermo) in the west of the island. The Carthaginians fear that if the Greeks win the whole of Sicily they will next move onto Sardinia and beyond, isolating the Phoenician Colonies in North Africa.

The successful defence of Sicily is followed by attempts to strengthen limited footholds in Sardinia. A fortress at Monte Sirai in Sardinia is the oldest Phoenician military building in Southern Europe.

This map shows the greatest extent of Greek influence in southern Italy and on Sicily, during the fifth and fourth centuries BC, when the Etruscans were a major rival (click or tap on map to view full sized)

c.580 - 556 BC

Of the same family as Mago I, below.

576 BC

General Malchus is sent to Sicily as commander sometime after this date, most likely due to pleas from the Phoenician cities there (and possibly also those of the Elymi) for help against Greek expansion westwards into the island.

Whether or not Carthaginian troops are already stationed on Sicily is unclear. Malchus could be responsible for the capture of the Greek city of Selinus and the (presumably independent) Phoenician Colonies of Motya, Panormus, and Soluntum during the ensuing battle.

574 BC

Carthage becomes independent of Tyre. Although many elements of life and government in Carthage are patterned on those of Tyre, the city does not establish a permanent kingship of its own but instead is governed under 'suffet' or the more widely-used Hebrew 'shoftim', meaning 'judges'.

The shoftim of Carthage eventually prove to be both executive power and judicial leaders, but they hold no military power. It appears that each shofet is elected by the citizens, and holds office for a one year term. Quite possibly there are two of them at a time, mirroring the system of consulship later used by Rome.

The visible remains of ancient Tyre are largely Greek and Roman, built on the base of the first millennium BC Phoenician city

c.556 - 550 BC

Expanded Carthage's holdings along the coast.

c.550 - 510 BC

King of Carthage, and more than a (still minor) shofet.

c.540 BC

The threat from the Greeks recedes when Carthage, in alliance with Etruscan cities, backs the Phoenicians of Corsica and succeeds in excluding the Greeks from contact with colonies such as Gadir in southern Iberia. Around the same time Malgus has to be seized and executed for his apparent ambitions to become king of Carthage (clearly a prevailing trend amongst the ruling class).

539 BC

All of Phoenicia is submerged within the Persian empire. As a result, many Phoenicians emigrate to the colonies, especially Carthage. This city quickly rises to become a major power under the Magonid descendants of Mago, and especially under Hanno.

Utica quickly becomes a dependency, as do many other Phoenician Colonies such as Hadrumetum and Kerkouane. That allows the Magonids to monopolise the position of shofet for a century. The Tartessians, however, begin a decline after losing Gadir as their primary export hub.

The surviving ruins of the Phoenician city of Gadir are few in number although some signs of them can be found, but did these pillars provide a name for the nearby 'Pillars of Heracles' (the modern Straits of Gibraltar) thanks to Hercules himself supposedly completing one of his labours here?

c.510 - 499 BC

Elected king. Died of battle wounds.

509 BC

A century and-a-half of exploitation by the Phoenicians now results in an uprising by the Sardi. They mount a series of attacks against Phoenician settlements, forcing the colonists to call upon Carthage for help. A military force arrives which puts down the uprising and secures most of the island under Carthaginian control.

c.500 BC

Carthage now dominates the Phoenician settlement of Gadir, making it a dependency. At the same time other Phoenician settlements are likely also taken under Carthage's wing, including Onuba. It is also responsible for the resumption of trade in luxury items along the Atlantic coast of Europe.

The Castro culture of Iberia certainly benefits from this after half a millennium of comparative isolation following the end of the Atlantic Bronze Age, with tribes such as the Cynetes soon becoming dominated by the presence of Carthaginians. The Tartessians, however, are already in terminal decline when their civilisation disappears abruptly around this time.

Horses are featured in art which has been unearthed at many palaces and halls in Tartessos, including this figurine from Cancho Roano, another inland site

499 - 480 BC

Grandson of Mago. Killed in battle.

480 BC

Hamilcar lands a huge army in Sicily in order to confront Syracuse (a colony of Corinth) on the island's eastern coast. The Carthaginians are defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Himera in which Hamilcar is killed.

A long struggle ensues with intermittent warfare between Carthage and Syracuse, although Carthage seems to be knocked out of the fight for the next two generations.

Probably a direct result of the defeat is the fact that the kings of Carthage are forced to relinquish most of their powers to the council of elders, which is made up of the nobility and aristocratic merchant clans, along with the 'Tribunal of 104'. The kings are allowed to remain in place (as little more than figureheads).

c.480 - 440 BC

An explorer. Possibly king or high-ranking noble.

c.450 BC

The Barcid family comes to prominence as shoftim (magistrates) in the city. The family is known for its military and political influence. It plays a significant role in Carthaginian history, particularly during the Punic Wars. Their prominence as shoftim marks a shift in the city's governance, foreshadowing future leadership roles it will hold.

The Carthaginians and Greeks seemed pretty evenly matched in their struggle for dominance of the western Mediterranean - this time around, Hamilcar's defeat on Sicily (shown here in a Victorian print of the event) merely triggered a series of conflicts

c.460 - 410 BC

Ruled the Carthaginian settlement in Sicily.

440 - 406 BC

Grandson of Hamilcar. Killed by plague during a siege.

406 - 396 BC

Penitent for Syracuse failure. Perhapsstarved to death.

396 BC

When Hamilco pulls out of Syracuse, abandoning his Iberian Mercenaries, it is the Iberians who survive the subsequent massacre. They group together, march to Syracuse, and offer Dionysius 'the Elder' their services (see feature link). This results in some of them becoming his personal bodyguard while his son, Dionysius II, sends some of their mounted warriors to aid Sparta.

396 - 383 BC

Of the same clan as Mago. Killed in battle.

383/382 BC

Son.

c.383 BC

As the aristocracy seizes more power through the council of elders, two factions emerge. One is that of the aristocrats under Eshmuniaton, while the other is the military faction under Hanno 'the Great'.

Hanno's position is closest to the old notion of 'king'. He rides a wave of popular support as the war with Syracuse is once more renewed and Carthage is gripped by ardent nationalism.

The colony of Motya (modern San Pantaleo), just off the western coast of Sciliy and close to Syracuse, changed hands twice during the revolt, with Ducetius of the Siculi at the centre of the fighting in his attempts to oppose Greek dominance

383/2-c.382/0 BC

A member of the council of elders. Condemned.

c.382/380 BC

Eshmuniaton is disposed of in the courts when he is condemned for treason. Hanno 'the Great' assumes the position of first citizen, or tyrant, over the city.

There seems to be some confusion amongst academics over the use of 'Hanno the Great'. There are two of them in this list (in 382 BC and 250 BC, along with a powerful second century BC politician who is not shown here), and the numbering which had begun with the previous two rulers named Hanno is ignored.

Here, the numbering from the previous two Hannos is continued, thereby differentiating between the two 'greats' as Hanno III and Hanno IV, but also showing their alternative numbering in paranthesis.

382 - 360 BC

Returned to temporary power in 340 BC.

367 BC

The war against Syracuse finally comes to an end when Hanno leads a fleet of two hundred ships to a decisive naval victory over the Greeks on Sicily. Soon afterwards, Dionysius of Syracuse is apparently poisoned on the orders of his son.

Perhaps copying the template created by earlier such structures - notably at Göbekli Tepe in Turkey - Sicily's monumental temple structures began to appear around 4000 BC

360 BC

Hanno III apparently steps down from his position as head of state (essentially the 'first among equals' rather than fulfilling the role of a king). However, the disasters of 345-340 BC persuade him to return in 340 BC.

360 - 344 BC

Defeated and committed suicide.

345 - 340 BC

The Carthaginians launch a large-scale military campaign in Sicily, sending fifty thousand infantry backed by cavalry, a large fleet of war chariots, and a large train of siege engines. However, the Greeks of Syracuse receive assistance from Corinth and the Carthaginian forces are driven out. Mago commits suicide rather than face the 'Tribunal of 104'.

340 - 339 BC

Executed for rebellion against the council.

340 BC

Another army is sent against Syracuse, commanded by two generals named Hasdrubal and Hamilcar. This is also defeated, at the Battle of Crimisus, during which the elite 'Sacred Battalion' of three thousand noblemen is annihilated. The defeat ranks as one of Carthage's greatest military disasters. General Hasdrubal is condemned by the 'Tribunal of 104' and is executed.

The fifth century BC Greek theatre lies on the southern slopes of the Temenite Hill in Syracuse, still in surprisingly good condition despite centuries of spoliation

339 BC

Hanno attempts to overthrow the council of elders, first by having them all assassinated and, when this fails, by organising a revolt. This also fails and Hanno is brutally executed, along with most of his family. Remarkably, his son not only survives, but is trusted with executive power in the city state.

339 - 330 BC

Son.

330 - 309 BC

Related to Hanno II.

310 - 307 BC

During the Third Sicilian War, Agathocles tyrant of Syracuse launches a daring raid against Carthage. He lands an army of fourteen thousand at Cape Bon, near the city in a desperate attempt to relieve the Carthaginian siege of Syracuse by drawing away Carthage's focus. The attempt meets with disappointing results.

309 - 308 BC

Of Hanno's clan. Executed for rebellion against council.

308 BC

Bomilcar attempts to overthrow the council of elders, unsuccessfully. For his pains he is crucified and the system of monarchy (in its loosest sense in relation to Carthage) is terminated.

Carthage adopts a system by which the city state is governed as a form of oligarchic republic. Even so, it remains dominated at frequent intervals by powerful individuals, all of whom are generals.

Shown here are two sides of a coin minted in Syracuse about 280 BC, around the crossover between Icetas, Toinon, and Sosistratos

c.300 BC

The region around the River Avon in the modern city of Bath in Britain is occupied by an unknown people at this time. They could be the ancestors of at least part of the later Dobunni tribe, but no details are known about them.

A lucky find of an ancient coin near Bath (in AD 2012) is due to extensive flooding in the region. The coin is dated between 300-264 BC and is most likely to be produced in the Carthaginian colonies on Sardinia.

Several similar examples are found, but only along Britain's coastline, not along a river which certainly is used for trading purposes during the second millennium AD, a use which would seem to date back at least to this period.

While Sardinia is favoured as the coin's place of manufacture, almost any of the Punic empire's colonies could be responsible, including Carthage itself. Clearly trading links exist at this time between the Phoenician Colonies and the British Isles, mainly for Britain's tin which is found in large deposits in Devon and Cornwall.

Buried in the silt and mud of the Avon's banks for two thousand three hundred years, the coin is generally in poor condition, but its comparative rarity makes it important.

The coin's obverse, left, has an image of Tanit, a Punic and Phoenician goddess, while the reverse, right, has a horse's head - horses were a prized asset with a large swathe of Indo-European peoples which included the Celts who lived in Britain

295 - 250 BC

First Barcid. Obscure, possibly a regional noble.

275 - 259 BC

Related?

264 - 241 BC

The First Punic War erupts between Rome and Carthage. It starts in Sicily and develops into a naval war in which the Romans learn how to fight at sea and eventually gain overall victory. Carthage loses Sardinia and the western section of Sicily.

Carthage also has to quell subsequent dissent from Utica and its neighbouring city of Hippocritae, and the post-Punic Mercenary War in which Carthage's hired troops, mainly Iberian Mercenaries, virtually go on strike for better pay.

250 - 241 BC

Related?

241 - 228 BC

Related. Died in or after battle in Iberia.

237 BC

Hamilcar leads an expedition to expand Carthage's interests in Iberia and conquer the native peoples. Using Gadir as his base of operations, he pursues this policy until his death in battle. Hasdrubaal takes command, and pursues a policy of consolidation.

The Iberian peninsula prior to the Carthaginian invasion and partial conquest was a melange of different tribal influences (click or tap on map to view full sized)

With Rome under threat of imminent attack by Gauls in northern Italy, they hurriedly sign a treaty with him whereby both parties agree to maintain the River Ebro as their mutual border, with neither crossing to pursue gains in the other side's territory. However, this means that the Roman settlements in the north pose a potential threat.

228 - 221 BC

Son. Assassinated.

221 - 195 BC

Brother-in-law. Almost destroyed Rome. Died about 183-181 BC.

218 - 202 BC

The Second Punic War starts at Saguntum (near modern Valencia) in Hispania when the Turboletae assist Carthage in sacking this Edetani city during the final assault. Using Gadir as a base, Hannibal Barca sets out to attack Rome, leading his armies over the Alps into Italy.

He has to fight off resistance by Gaulish tribes such as the Allobroges along the way but is supported by other Gauls such as the Insubres, and pre-Gaulish tribes such as the Ingauni.

The Celtic tribes of the Western Alps were relatively small and fairly fragmented, but they made up for that with a level of belligerence and fighting ability that often stunned their major opponents, including the Romans

At first he wins great victories at Trasimeno and Cannae which all but destroys Roman military strength, but he is denied the reinforcements to pursue his victory by an opposing political faction back at home. The majority of Rome's Italian allies remain loyal and Rome is able to rebuild its strength.

Gadir is lost in 206 BC. Three years later the Carthaginians lose the Battle of the Great Plains when their forces are routed (203 BC). Their Iberian Mercenaries stand firm and fight to the very end, determined not to be picked off while running away or being subjected to the horrors of capture and execution.

In 202 BC an enemy force is landed in North Africa, thanks to which Hannibal is defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama, thereby ending the war. Mago Barca dies of his wounds in the same year.

The effective weapon of the Balearic warrior was the sling, with each man carrying three, wound around the head according to Strabo or, according to Diodorus, one around the head, one around the body, and one in the hand

During the war, Philip of Macedonia allies himself to Carthage. To avoid a possible reinforcement of Hannibal by Macedonia, Rome dispatches a force to tie down the Macedonians in the First Macedonian War.

The war ends indecisively in 205 BC with the Treaty of Phoenicia. Even though it is only a minor conflict, it opens the way for later Roman military intervention in Greece.

218 - 207 BC

Brother. Strategos of Iberia. Died 202 BC.

210s - 206 BC

Brother. Died of wounds 202 BC.

210s - 206 BC

Son of Gisco. Committed suicide to avoid angry mob.

201 BC

A peace treaty is dictated by Rome in which Carthage loses its trading cities in Hispania and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean, and much of its influence over the Numidian kingdoms in North Africa. The city's power is reduced to its immediate surroundings, and it owes a large indemnity to Rome. Hannibal is allowed to return to Carthage.

This artist's impression depicts a selection of Carpetani warriors in various designs of armour and costume, some bearing influences which are Carthaginian or Roman

196 - 195 BC

Hannibal is still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader and is now elected shofet. He reforms the government in order to meet the heavy tribute payments which are demanded by Rome, but when his reforms are blocked by a financial official who is about to become a judge for life, Hannibal rallies the populace against the 'Tribunal of 104'.

He proposes a one year term for the tribunal as part of a major civic overhaul. His political opponents flee to Rome and charge Hannibal with conspiracy by plotting war against Rome in league with the Seleucid king, Antiochus III.

Although Scipio Africanus resists such a manoeuvre, eventual Roman intervention forces Hannibal to flee Carthage for Antioch, handing victory to the corrupt officials.

195 - 160 BC

General. Pro-Roman faction. Captured in battle.

183 - 181 BC

After living for a time in Bithynia, Hannibal is about to be handed over to the Romans. To escape he commits suicide by taking poison. The exact year of his death is variously reported.

Roman military tactics may have owed something to the Samnites, with this efficient and seasoned warrior force matching the Romans and bettering them in the fourth century BC

160 - 152 BC

Democratic faction.

152 - 148 BC

Identity uncertain. Possibly the 'Boetarch'.

148 - 146 BC

Official rank. Surrendered to Rome.

149 - 146 BC

Carthage has recovered from its defeat in 202 BC and refuses a change in terms by Rome. The Third Punic War sees Rome's armies besieging Carthage which rejects negotiations. Eventually the city is destroyed and its citizens are enslaved.

The event is witnessed by Polybius, whose record is preserved by Plutarch, although there is something of a feeling of pro-Roman propaganda about it. While the Balearic Islands are left virtually independent, the region around Carthage is annexed to the growing overseas empire of Rome, in the form of Africa Proconsularis.

Roman Carthage, when it was finally constructed over the ashes of the original city, was of course bigger and better and even more grand than the original city had been