African Kingdoms

Morocco

Morocco has seen millennia of human habitation, reaching about as far back as the earliest appearance of Homo Sapiens in Africa, during the later days of the Lower Palaeolithic cultures. Along with Iberia it seems to have provided a refuge for human populations until the ending of the most recent Ice Age. During the first millennium BC, several Phoenician colonies were founded along its coastline, including Chellah (or Sala Collonia, to the south of Rabat), Lixus (now ruins), and Mogador (the colony of Arambys). Rule from Carthage followed, which was replaced by Roman control. Invasions by Vandali and Visigoths cut the final ties with Rome, but both were superseded by Byzantine governance. This in turn was ended by the Arabs, who invaded in 682 in the course of their drive to expand the power of Islam.

Except for the Jews, the inhabitants of Morocco, both Christian and pagan, soon accepted the religion of their conquerors. Berber troops, who themselves had a kingdom in the region for about three centuries until 33 BC, were used extensively by the Arabs in their conquest of Visigoth Iberia, which began in 711.

(Additional information from The Phoenicians, Sabatino Moscati (2001), and from External Link: Field Projects - Jebel Irhoud (Department of Human Evolution at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology - dead link).)

3rd cent BC

The Berber kingdom of Mauritania is formed in the third century, although this state is actually located in modern Morocco, not modern Mauritania.

682 - 788

North Africa is separated from the Eastern Roman empire by the Islamic empire.

788

The Islamic Idrisids become independent from Arabia.

Idrisid Dynasty (Kingdom of Fez)
AD 788 - 974

The first Arab dynasty to rule over the whole of Morocco was named after Idris, a refugee from the east who was the great-great- grandson of Fatima, daughter of the prophet Muhammad. In 793 Idris was poisoned, apparently by an emissary from the Abassid caliph Harun ar-Rashid, from whose usurpation he had fled. Idris' son made Fex (otherwise shown as Fès or Fes) his capital. This was to become a centre of Islamic and Arab culture throughout the centuries, and the domains around it were usually known as the kingdom of Fez.

788 - 793

Refugee from the east.

793 - 828

Son.

828 - 836

836 - 848

848 - 864

864 - 874

874 - 883

883 - 904

904 - 917

922 - 925

The Idrisids are overthrown by the Tunisian Fatamids.

925 - 927

927 - 937

The Idrisids are again overthrown by the Tunisian Fatamids.

937 - 948

948 - 954

954 - 974

Not to be confused with Hassan II of the Alawis, b.1929.

985

The last Idrisid makes the mistake of switching allegiances back to the Fatamids, and is deposed and executed by the caliphate of Cordoba.

1054 - 1055

Abdullah Ibn Yasin is now able to lead an army of nomads northwards from the depths of sub-Saharan western Africa towards the major trading city of Sijilmasa in Morocco, immediately to the south of the Atlas Mountains. The city contains 50,000 people and occupies one of the biggest oases in Africa, and it falls to this new army. Immediately, ibn Yasin leads his forces south around the edge of the Sahara to captures the source of Sijilmasa's wealth in gold at Awdaghust. Now they have a virtual monopoly in the Sahara region of this most lucrative trade. Ibn Yasin's followers gain the name 'Almoravids' from a phrase meaning 'Those bound together in the cause of God'.

1062 - 1147

With their attacks on 'heretics' and the extra territory they are able to continually add to the new kingdom, the Almoravids have effectively conquered southern Morocco by 1062. Not content with remaining in the luxurious but strategically vulnerable Aghmat, the Almoravids return to the Sahara side of the Atlas Mountains and found a new capital for themselves in 1070, Marrakesh. What begins as a collection of tents pitched in the desert quickly becomes an established city.

The only surviving part of Almoravid Marrakech aside from the Bab Doukkalaa gate is this small fragment of the sultan's palace of AD 1110 - the rest being torn down and rebuilt by the Almohads

1130 - 1147

Berber leader of the Almohads.

1147

After almost twenty years of laying siege to Marrakech, the Almohads finally break through the city's mighty walls. They begin their reign by tearing down all of the Almoravid mosques in the city, citing that they are not properly aligned with Mecca so they must be rebuilt. All that remains of Almoravid power is in the Balearic Islands which they continue to occupy.

Almohad (Muwahid) Caliphs of Iberia & North Africa
AD 1147 - 1269

The Berber Almoravids had made sweeping conquests of north-western Africa in the mid-eleventh century. They were driven by a conviction that the Muslims of the region were not practising their faith properly, and they wanted to correct that. However, while they were at the height of their power, a new Islamic force was building in the foothills of the Atlas Mountains in the shape of the Berber Almohads. They were just as convinced that the Almoravids were not practising their faith properly, and they also wanted to correct that. The Almoravids, unable to pin them down, began to fear them and were largely trapped inside Marrakech for twenty years while the Almohads besieged and finally defeated them.

The Almohads very quickly took over the rest of the Almoravid empire, drawing much of eastern Algeria, plus Mauritania, and Tunisia into their realm, while also controlling all of Islamic Iberia. Almohad Iberia was distinguished by intellectual brilliance and by intolerant oppression which was mirrored in Marrakech, where all of the Almoravid mosques were pulled down and rebuilt because they were supposedly not correctly aligned to Mecca. By the early thirteenth century, the Christian kingdoms of Iberia, mostly notably Leon, had made large in-roads into the Islamic territories, and the Almohads soon lost most of Iberia, abandoned the peninsula, and then were even overthrown in North Africa.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the BBC documentary series, Lost Kingdoms of Africa, first broadcast on 5 January 2010, from The Spread of Islam Throughout the World, Idris El Hareir (UNESCO, 2011), from The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume 6, Fascicules 107-108, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (Ed, 1986-87), from The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, C E Bosworth (2004).)

1147 - 1163

Commanded Almohads from 1130. Took Marrakech (1147).

1149

The collateral line assumes the Fatamid throne in Tunisia and is no longer considered to be Shiite Imams. The Almohads occupy Tunis, stretching the empire farther east than the Almoravids had done before them. They also encroach into modern Libya, keeping mainly nearer the coast.

This ebony market may have been held in Tunis in more recent times but it doubtless mirrors such markets going back through centuries of Islamic and pre-Islamic control of the region

1163 - 1184

Son. Died as a result of battle wounds.

1170 - 1171

Yusuf invades Iberia, conquering the region of al-Andalus (Andalusia) and attacking both Catalonia and Valencia. In the following year he establishes a capital at Seville, his second after Marrakech.

1184

Marching across the Straits of Gibraltar with an army to besiege Santarem, Yusuf is wounded by a crossbow bolt fired by the forces of Afonso I of Portugal. He dies soon afterwards, on 29 July 1184. The Christian victory is a major success, and a major blow for the presence of the Almohads in Iberia. Yusuf's son and successor is temporarily delayed in his plans for revenge by fighting against the dethroned Almoravids in Africa.

1184 - 1199

Son. Last strong Almohad ruler.

1191 - 1195

Fresh from failure in front of the walls of Tomar, stronghold of the Portuguese Templars, Yaqub recaptures Paderne Castle and nearby territory around Albufeira, Portuguese holdings since 1182. This victory and other seizures allow him to return to North Africa in triumph but as soon as he leaves Iberia, the Christians resume the offensive. They take several Islamic cities, including Beja, Silves, and Vera, necessitating another campaign. This time Yaqub returns to inflict a further defeat on them, taking hostages to sell as slaves. Once he leaves Iberia again, the largest Christian army of the period is assembled. Determined to put a halt to this, Yaqub defeats the army which is commanded by Alfonso VIII of Castile, slaughtering thousands of his men.

1199

The death of Yaqub al Mansur means that his vision of building the world's largest mosque remains unfulfilled. To this day, the incomplete mosque still stands, uncapped by a minaret. Al Mansur is the last of the strong rulers of the Almohad dynasty. His successors squabble amongst themselves to see who will succeed him, and the instability that this brings with it allows other Berber tribes to become more powerful. In Spanish Andalusia, the fundamentalist Christian crusade gains the upper hand against their equally fundamentalist Islamic opponents.

1199 - 1213

Son.

1207

Muhammad has been fighting off the Banu Ghaniya in their attempts to conquer Tunis. As a result he appoints Abd al-Wahid as his governor there, a plan which eventually backfires when the Hafsids declare independence.

1212

Muhammad suffers a devastating defeat by the Christian Iberians of Aragon, Castile, Navarre, and Portugal at Los Navos de Tolosa. Humiliated, he is forced to give way, and his army never fully recovers from the disaster. In the east, the empire fades as local tribes begin to rebel against Almohad rule. Libya soon falls out of Almohad control. The rebel areas stop paying taxes, so internal expenditure is slowly crippled, and control over more territory is gradually lost, along with domination of the western Mediterranean Sea.

Ongoing battles between the Almohads and the Iberian Christians would end up in North African defeat for the former at the Battle of Los Navos de Tolosa in 1212

1213 - 1224

Son. Acceded aged 10. No heir.

1213 - 1224

Yusuf II Abu Yaqub largely leaves the handling of the empire in the hands of his viziers and relatives. The heavy losses suffered by the Almohad army in 1212 have weakened the empire's defences and that, plus the lack of central control, encourages a series of rebellions to break out during Yusuf's reign. The Almohads are hard pressed to put them down and one, led by the Merinids in the south, simply refuses to go away.

1224

Great-uncle. Selection disputed. Murdered.

1224

The selection of Abdul-Wahid is disputed by various members of the Almohads. Abdallah Abu Muhammad, the governor of al-Andalus, arrives to clear out the group at court that had forged ahead with the selection, and murders the caliph. His usurpation, whatever the legal implications, triggers a lasting period of instability within the empire which eventually contributes to its downfall. The sons of the powerful governor of Ifriqiyya, Abd-Allah, are some of the few not to fall in line with the usurpation.

1224 - 1227

Brother of al-Nasir (1199). Former governor of al-Andalus.

1227 - 1235

Nephew. Sidelined by opposition for most of his reign.

1227

Having succeeded Abdallah following the latter's untimely death in a bath tub, Yahya has more general support but immediately faces the threat of a pretender named Idris ibn Yaqub. He seizes parts of the empire and a civil war breaks out. Idris calls for support from Ferdinand III of Castile, and the 12,000 knights he receives enables him to conquer Marrakech and exterminate the sheiks who have supported Yahya. Idris rules virtually all of the empire until his death.

Islamic coins such as this Almohad dirham were circulated throughout and beyond their territory, including Iberia and even France until the pope banned Islamic coins from Europe

1227 - 1232

Rival caliph. Gained much of the empire. Died campaigning.

1228 - 1229

Under Idris, the Almohads effect the abandonment of Iberia in order to secure their hold on the rest of the empire. Only the Nasrid kings of Granada remain there in the far south. In the following year, the Almohads lose Tunis after having appointed a governor there in 1207. Now, with the empire looking increasingly shaky, the new Hafsid governor of Tunis, Abu Zakariya, declares independence. Abu Zakariya and his Hafsid dynasty rule the former Roman province of Africa along with the modern Maghreb.

1232 - 1235

Yahya captures Marrakech while Idris is besieging Cueta. Idris dies on the march back to his capital, leaving Yahya able to re-secure some level of power in the empire. His success is soured by the son of Idris, Abdul-Wahid II, who proclaims himself the rightful caliph. Yahya dies just three years later, leaving Abdul-Wahid II as the sole caliph.

1232 - 1242

Son of Idris. Sole caliph from 1235.

1236

The emir of Tlemcen (located in north-western Algeria) declares his independence from the fragmenting empire. He founds the Zayyanid dynasty which eventually wrests virtually all of Algeria from Almohad control.

1242 - 1248

Brother. Killed in an ambush.

1248

The Berber Merinids capture and make Fès their capital. Almohad attempts even to launch a retaliatory strike against Fès come to nothing when Ali's governor dies under mysterious circumstances. By now the Almohads are left only with parts of Morocco.

1248 - 1266

Reduced to Marrakech and surroundings.

1266

With his territory reduced to the region around the capital, Marrakech, the Almohad empire is no more. To make matters worse, Umar is forced to pay tribute to the increasingly dominant Merinids. In 1266 he even loses his throne when his cousin usurps his position while he is defending Marrakech from a Merinid siege.

This portrait of Abu Hafs Umar was created during his lifetime and after almost twenty years on the Almohad throne, a considerable period in his unstable times

1266 - 1269

Cousin and usurper. Assassinated by a slave.

1269

The Zayyanids capture Marrakech, ending Almohad rule in Algeria. North Africa breaks up between the Hafsids (at Tunis), Merinids (in Morocco), and the Algerian Abdul-Wadids and Zayyanids. None of them are strong enough to reunite the empire and rule a strong North Africa, so they fight amongst themselves for pockets of territory, and none of them are dominant until the sixteenth century Saadi dynasty comes to power.

Merinid Dynasty / Marinids / Beni Merin (Kingdom of Fez)
AD (1195) 1248 - 1465

The Zenata Berber Merinids occupied territory to the south-east of modern Morocco, from which they were expelled in 1224 by another tribe, the Hilali. Coincidentally perhaps, this coincided with a disputed succession in the Almohad kingdom to the north which served to destabilise that regime and encourage all sorts of opposition. As early as 1145 the Merinids had been engaging in battles against the Almohads, but they were unable to effect any kind of breakthrough until 1169. In that year they began their pursuit of taking Morocco from the Almohads, and perhaps expulsion by the Hilali from their previous territory only served to push them onwards in achieving that aim. Typically, their opposition to the Almohads didn't stop them from also serving under the Almohads, notably at the Battle of Alarcos in Iberia (1195).

Taking their dynastic name from an ancestor, Marin ibn Wartajan al-Zenati, the Merinids moved northwards under the command of Uthman ibn Abd al-Haqq (1217-1240). They took Fez (Fès or Fes) in 1248 under the command of Uthman's brother, Abu Yahya ibn Abd al-Haqq. Fez became the Merinid capital and the takeover marked the beginning of their dynasty - the area they ruled was usually known as the kingdom of Fez. The Merinid leadership renewed the war against the Almohads with the aid of Christian mercenaries in the region. Capturing Marrakech in 1269, they took control of most of the Maghreb towards the end of 1268, including present-day Morocco, Algeria, and part of Tunisia. The Almohads were finished, and the Merinids were now dominant (but not unopposed).

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Spread of Islam Throughout the World, Idris El Hareir (UNESCO, 2011), from The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume 6, Fascicules 107-108, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (Ed, 1986-87), from The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, C E Bosworth (2004), and from External Links: Les Mérinides (Encyclopaedia Universalis - in French), and Historic Monuments (Regional Council of Tourism Fez).)

1195 - 1217

Died in combat against the Almohads.

1217 - 1240

Son. Assassinated by one of his Christian slaves.

1240 - 1244

Brother. Killed by an officer of his own Christian militia.

1244 - 1258

Brother. Death through illness.

1248

The Berber Merinids capture and make Fès their capital. Almohad attempts even to launch a retaliatory strike against Fès come to nothing when Caliph Ali's governor dies under mysterious circumstances. By now the Almohads are left only with parts of Morocco.

The kingdom of Fez under Merinid control made the most of the confused political situation in North Africa by pouncing on the Zayyanids in 1337 and then on the Hafsids in 1347 to briefly recreate the former Alhomad kingdom (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1258 - 1286

Brother. Death through illness.

1266

With Caliph Umar's territory reduced to the region around the capital, Marrakech, the Almohad empire is no more. To make matters worse, Umar is forced to pay tribute to the increasingly dominant Merinids. In 1266 he even loses his throne when his cousin usurps his position while he is defending Marrakech from a Merinid siege.

1269

North Africa breaks up between the Hafsids, Merinids, and the Algerian Abdul-Wadids and Zayyanids). None of them are strong enough to reunite the Almohad empire and rule a strong North Africa, so they fight amongst themselves for pockets of territory, and none of them are dominant until the sixteenth century Saadi dynasty comes to power.

1286 - 1307

Son. Assassinated by a court eunuch.

1286

The accession of Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr is disputed by several of his relatives. Some of them are even backed by the Abdal Wadids in an effort to destabilise Merinid possessions. Desperate for support, Abu Yaqub agrees a treaty with Mohammad II of Granada which cedes almost all Merinid holdings in Iberia to him. Only Algeciras, Guadix, Ronda, and Tarifa are retained (although Guadix would be gained by Granada in 1288, Algeciras and Ronda handed over to Granada in 1295, and Tarifa captured by Sancho IV of Castile in 1292).

1307 - 1308

Son (or grandson). Death through illness.

1308 - 1310

Brother. Acceded aged 19. Death through illness.

1310 - 1331

Brother. Death through illness.

1330

The future Yusuf I of Granada is defeated at the Battle of Teba. Somewhat desperate to maintain the Granadan position he contacts Sultan Abu al-Hasan ibn Uthman (presumably in 1331). Hasan sends a fleet and an army which arrives in 1333 and within two months the Castilian outpost on Gibraltar has fallen. The combined Granadan and Merinid forces go on to win further victories while in Morocco Hasan builds up a massive invasion army which is intended to undo a century of Christian advances in Iberia.

1331 - 1348

Son. Usurped by his son and imprisoned until at least 1366.

1337 - 1347

With the Zayyanids now in command of Tunis, the dispossessed Hafsids appeal for help to the Merinids. Only too glad to have an excuse of expanding his Merinid kingdom at the expense of one of his neighbours, Sultan Abu al-Hasan ibn Uthman invades and captures Tlemcen in 1337. With the Zayyanid ruler dead in battle, the Merinids now control Zayyanid territory.

1340

Sultan Abu al-Hasan ibn Uthman launches his grand invasion of Iberia. The Castilian fleet is instantly destroyed off the coast of Gibraltar. Tarifa is besieged but Hasan, believing that the Castilians are no longer a threat at sea, lays up much of his own fleet. Alfonso, though, has sought the help of his uncle, Alfonso IV of Portugal, and the king of Aragon. The fleet this produces cuts the Merinid chain of communications across the straits of Gibraltar. The Christian army then relieves Tarifa at the Battle of Río Salado (or the Battle of Tarifa) on 30 October 1340. The Merinids are thoroughly defeated and a North African ruler never again threatens Iberia. Granada now fights alone.

1347 - 1348

Sultan al-Hasan takes the opportunity presented to him by the bickering Hafsids and invades Ifriqiyya. Having already captured Tlemcen from the Zayyanids, for a brief period the territories of the former Almohad kingdom are reunited under one ruler. However, Sultan Abu al-Hasan of Fez is defeated in 1348 by Arab tribes who resent his authoritarian attitude. The sultan's son returns to Fez from his governorship at Tlemcen and declares himself sultan. Abu al-Hasan is unable to recapture his throne. The Zayyanids instantly rebel, overthrow their Merinid invaders and retake their kingdom.

1348 - 1358

Son. Assassinated by his vizir. Merinids began to decline.

1352 - 1359

The Merinids again conquer areas of Zayyanid Algeria, but never as completely as before. Any Merinid success is brought to a crashing halt by the murder of Sultan Abu Inan Farais and the subsequent control of the kingdom by his vizir. The dynasty had already begun to decline during Abu Inan Faris' reign, but his murder begins a definite period of instability with the viziers raising several claimants to the throne in succession. King Pedro of Castile supports the third of these, Abu Salim Ibrahim, in a clear show of increasing Spanish influence on North Africa.

Most of the Merinid tombs date from the fourteenth century, although there remain today only modest ruins of them which overlook the Medina of Fez

Shortly after the murder, in 1359, Hintata tribesmen from the High Atlas occupy the kingdom's southern city of Marrakech (Marrakesh), retaining it for almost two centuries until it is conquered by the Saadi. The loss is never rectified by the Merinids, signalling a weakening of the new puppet sultan's power.

1358

Son. Installed by viziers. Lasted a few months.

1358

Brother. Lasted a few months.

1359 - 1361

Son of al-Hasan. Installed by viziers. Replaced.

1361

Reigned a few months. 'Reign of the vizirs' ends.

1362 - 1366

Son of al-Hasan. Assassinated by his vizir.

1366 - 1372

Son of al-Hasan. Died through illness.

1372

Young son. Died without gaining the throne in 1373.

1372 - 1384

Supported by Nasrids of Granada. Died 1393.

1374

Following the instability caused by the death of Abu Faris Abd and his young son, the Merinid empire is partitioned in two: based at Fez (the Merinids) and Marrakech (a splinter state). This division of the Merinid state lasts until reunification is achieved in 1387.

1384 - 1386

Interim replacement made by Nasrids of Granada.

1384 - 1387

Reigned at Marrakech.

1386 - 1387

Interim replacement made by Nasrids of Granada.

1387 - 1393

Restored to overall control.

1393 - 1396

Son?

1396 - 1398

Relationship unknown.

1398 - 1420

Brother of Abu Faris.

1399

Benefiting from the growing anarchy within the impoverished Merinid kingdom, Henry III of Castile invades Morocco and seizes Tetouan. He massacres half the population and reduces the rest to slavery.

1415

King John I of Portugal seizes Ceuta, marking the beginning of European expansion into Africa. Cueta is never regained by any North African power, remaining a Spanish possession into the twenty-first century.

1420 - 1465

Son. Acceded aged one. Throat cut during popular revolt.

1437

Edward of Portugal, supported by his brothers, Henry and Fernando, attacks Tangiers with a view to improving his trade and exploration base in North Africa. The attack succeeds but at a cost. Fernando is captured and dies in prison and Edward himself dies of plague the following year.

The Christian conquest of Iberia was a drawn-out process which covered several centuries of combat and slow advance, but in its later days it frequently spilled over into North African kingdoms which were supporting the 'Moors' in southern Iberia

1458 - 1471

It is a troubled period in the sultanate. The king of Portugal decides to expand his interests along the coastal section of Morocco, so his forces start with the conquest of Alcacer Ceguer in 1458. At the same time there is unrest inside Morocco, demonstrated the following year when Abu Muhammad Abd discovers the extent of the conspiracy by his own Wattasid viziers to secure all power for themselves. He effectively revolts against them. Only two Wattasid brothers survive the massacre and it is they who become the first Watassid sultans in 1472. Before this can happen, Tangiers is conquered by the Portuguese in 1460 and is won and lost on multiple occasions up until 1464. Henry IV of Castile takes Gibraltar in 1462.

1465 - 1471

Pretender to the Merinid throne. Leader of the Sharifs.

1465 - 1472

The sultan is murdered in Fez in 1465, and Tangiers is secured by the Portuguese as they benefit from the chaos. while they also seize Arzila in 1471. Muhammad ibn Ali Amrani-Joutey, leader of the Sharifs, is proclaimed sultan in Fez in 1465, but he is overthrown in 1471 by Abu Abdallah Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya. Central control of the country is compromised until the former Wattasid viziers (which include the aforementioned Abu Abdallah Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya) succeed in fully taking over in 1472.

Wattasid Dynasty / Banu Wattas (Kingdom of Fez)
AD 1472 - 1554

Like the Merinids, the Wattasids had their origins in the Berber Zenatas. The two families were related, and the Merinids had recruited many viziers from the Wattasids. Unfortunately, mid-fifteenth century Morocco was a troubled place. The Portuguese were expanding their interests along the region's coastal section, which started with the conquest of Alcacer Ceguer in 1458. In the following year the Merinid sultan, Abu Muhammad Abd, discovered the conspiracy by his own Wattasid viziers to covertly secure power for themselves and eventually supplant him and the Merinids. Only two Wattasid brothers survived the subsequent massacre and it was they who became the first Watassid sultans in 1472 after seizing power in 1465. The last Merinid sultan had his throat cut during the popular revolt that extinguished his line's rule of the region.

Despite being accepted by the nobility, the Wattasid sultans only controlled northern Morocco. This was territory which formed the kingdom of Fez (Fès or Fes) which was centred on that city. The south was dominated from 1509 by the Saadi dynasty, which eventually replaced the Wattasids. The period from 1465 to 1472 was unstable, with the last of the Moroccan possessions in Al Andalus being lost. Ceuta had already been lost to Portugal, and the Spanish and Portuguese campaigned constantly in Morocco. Nevertheless, good commercial relations were maintained with the Iberians.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Reconnaissance au Maroc, Journal de route du voyage entrepris par Charles de Foucauld au Maroc en 1883-1884, Charles de Foucauld (four volumes, 1888, in French), from Reviving the Islamic Caliphate in Early Modern Morocco, Stephen Cory (2014), and from The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, C E Bosworth (2004).)

1472 - 1504

One of the two survivors from the 1459 massacre.

1479 & 1494

The Wattasids are progressively tarnished by two treaties. The Treaty of Alcáçovas of 1479, also known as the Peace of Alcáçovas-Toledo, is signed between the joint kingdom of Castile and Aragon on one side and King Afonso V and Prince John II of Portugal on the other.

It ends the Castillian War of Succession by recognising Isabella as queen of Castile, renouncing Spanish claims to the Portuguese throne and, most importantly for Morocco, it divides the Atlantic and its coastal territories into zones of influence. The Portuguese are now unopposed in their attempts to dominate the kingdom of Fez.

The marriage in 1469 of royal cousins Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile eventually brought stability to both kingdoms but also presaged an era of Spanish dominance in world affairs

The Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 effectively divides half the known world between the Spanish and Portuguese, ignoring all other European powers in the process, so they ignore the treaty in return.

It serves to confirm Portuguese domination in Morocco, amongst many other places, and Spanish domination of its claimed Spanish Colonies, and effectively dooms the Wattasids in the eyes of the populace as appeasers to the colonial aggressors.

1504 - 1526

Son. Ruled the north only (Fez).

1526

Brother. Ruled the north only (Fez).

1526 - 1545

Brother. Ruled the north only (Fez). Captured by the Saadi.

1528

The ruling Wattasids of the north have finally become worried enough to take action against the growing dominance in the south of the Saadi. Unfortunately for them it is entirely the wrong action. They launch a military attack and fight an indecisive battle. Following this the Saadi refuse to recognise the Wattasids as being the supreme power in Morocco and instead firmly position themselves as rivals. The Wattasids have to sign the Treaty of Tadla, which recognises Saadi governance over the south.

1541

The Saadi are going from strength to strength. Now they expel the Portuguese from Agadir, Arzila, Azafi, and Azamor. Having already received permission from Sultan Abu Abd Allah al-Burtuqali Muhammad to carry out this military campaign in the south, they now have the local support and backing to take power in Marrakesh.

1545 - 1547

Son. Ruled the north only (Fez).

1547 - 1549

Restored. Ruled the north only (Fez). Killed.

1549 - 1554

Saadi ruler Mohammed ash-Sheikh defeats the Wattasids to take control of Fez, heartland of the northern kingdom of Fez. In the same year he is able to seize Tlemcen, ending Zayyanid rule there. Wattasid Sultan Abu al-Abbas Ahmad is forced to seek refuge with the Ottoman beylerbey in Algiers. The Saadi effectively control the north.

1554

Restored as regent. Briefly claimed Fez.

1554

Sultan Abu al-Abbas Ahmad returns with Ottoman support from Algiers and re-takes Fez. Backed up by janissaries he holds the north, but only briefly. Mohammed ash-Sheikh launches a fresh offensive and the Battle of Tadla in September 1554 is the result. Abu al-Abbas Ahmad is defeated and killed, ending Wattasid attempts to regain power. Mohammed ash-Sheikh enters Fez as the permanent Saadi capital but the victory earns him the enmity of the Ottomans.

Saadi Dynasty / Saadite / Bani Zaydan (Kingdom of Fez)
AD (1509) 1554 - 1659

The Saadi claimed descent from Mohammad via the descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad's daughter, Fatima Zahra, just as the preceding Idrisid dynasty had done. They originated in the Tagmadert area (or Tagumadert) of the Draa river valley in modern south-western Morocco, although the precise location is now a matter of some debate. The original meaning of the Saadi name is also a matter of debate, although it may derive from the Bani 'Zaydan', the shurafa (sharif) of Tagmadert.

This dynasty of regional chieftains grew in power in a Morocco that was rather destabilised by the murder of the last of the Merinids and a seizure of northern territories by the Portuguese. They grew in influence to rule the south of Morocco from 1509, and recognised the authority of the Wattasids in the north until 1528. By this time the Wattasids had grown worried enough about them to launch an unsuccessful attack on them. In 1554 Sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh removed the Wattasids from power and reunited the region.

Before conquering Marrakech in the centre of what is now Morocco, Taroudant in the farther south of the region served as the Saadi capital. Marrakech was where they buried their nobility in the late sixteenth century, although these 'Saadi Tombs' were lost until 1917. Today they are a major regional tourist attraction. During the dynasty's period in charge, two of its most important achievements were ousting the Portuguese from Morocco and defending the country against the Ottomans, almost as great a menace to local rulers as the Portuguese. The Saadi saw themselves as ruling so that they could ensure their subjects would follow Islam properly, much as their Almohad and Almoravid predecessors had done before them. This dynasty was not a Berber one from north-western Africa - it was Arabic - but from 1511 it received support from the Sous Berbers.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Reconnaissance au Maroc, Journal de route du voyage entrepris par Charles de Foucauld au Maroc en 1883-1884, Charles de Foucauld (four volumes, 1888, in French), from Reviving the Islamic Caliphate in Early Modern Morocco, Stephen Cory (2014), from the Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World, (various editors, Marshall Cavendish, 2011), and from External Link: Archaeomagnetic intensity data from the Saadien Tombs (Marrakesh, Morocco), late C16th AD (downloadable PDF), Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol 8, European Geosciences Union (2006).)

1509 - 1517

Established principality in Tagmadert (southern Morocco).

1517 - 1544

Son. Ruled southern Morocco only. Recognised from 1528.

1528

Ahmad al-Araj has already won the support of the Sous Berbers (in 1511) and the Hintata tribes around Marrakech (in 1524). Now the ruling Wattasids of the north have finally become worried enough to take action against the growing dominance in the south of the Saadi. Unfortunately for them it is entirely the wrong action. They launch a military attack and fight an indecisive battle. Following this the Saadi refuse to recognise the Wattasids as being the supreme power in Morocco and instead firmly position themselves as rivals. The Wattasids have to sign the Treaty of Tadla, which recognises Saadi rule over the south.

The Djemaa el-Fna market place in Marrakech would have been as familiar to the Saadi sultans who seized the city in 1541 as it is to tourists today - although the square was actually used for executions, shortly after the city was founded in AD 1070

1541

The Saadi are going from strength to strength. Now they expel the Portuguese from Agadir, Arzila, Azafi, and Azamor. Having already received permission from Wattasid Sultan Abu Abd Allah al-Burtuqali Muhammad to carry out this military campaign in the south, they now have the local support and backing to take power in Marrakech.

1544 - 1557

Brother. Ruled all of Morocco after 1554. Assassinated.

1546

Despite the support of the Ottoman sultan for Khayr al-Din Barbarossa and his exploits in securing Algiers, it is only now that his son, Hasan Pasha, becomes the first official governor of the regency to be appointed by Constantinople. Algiers is now the main base for the ongoing Ottoman war against Spain in the Mediterranean and for operations against Morocco.

1549 - 1554

Mohammed ash-Sheikh defeats the Wattasids to take control of Fez, heartland of the northern kingdom of that name. In the same year he is able to seize Tlemcen, ending Zayyanid rule there. Wattasid Sultan Abu al-Abbas Ahmad is forced to seek refuge with the Ottoman beylerbey in Algiers. The Saadi effectively control the north.

1554

Wattasid Sultan Abu al-Abbas Ahmad returns with Ottoman support from Algiers and re-takes Fez. Backed up by janissaries he holds the north, but only briefly. Mohammed ash-Sheikh launches a fresh offensive and the Battle of Tadla in September 1554 is the result. Abu al-Abbas Ahmad is defeated and killed, ending Wattasid attempts to regain power. Mohammed ash-Sheikh enters Fez as his permanent capital but the victory earns him the enmity of the Ottomans.

1557 - 1558

Mohammed ash-Sheikh continues to refuse to give his allegiance to the Ottoman sultan. Instead, he forms an alliance with the Spanish. As a result, Hasan Pasha is appointed beylerbey of Algiers for the second time so that he can deal with the problem. He arranges to have ash-Sheikh assassinated by one of his own bodyguards and then invades the country early in 1558. His forces meet those of the Moroccans at the Battle of Wadi al-Laban (Oued el Leben, the 'river of milk') to the north of Fez, which results in a stalemate. Hasan is forced to retreat when he receives news that the Spanish are preparing to assault Oran.

The Battle of Wadi al-Laban took place in 1558 between the Ottoman beylerbey of Algiers and the sultan of Morocco, and the area today is part of an environmental improvement programme

1557 - 1574

Son. Died.

1574 - 1576

Son. Deposed by his uncle. Drowned.

1576 - 1578

Uncle. Seized throne with Ottoman support. Died.

1578

With Sultan Abu Abdallah Mohammed II having been deposed by his uncle, Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I, he seeks support from the Portuguese and their young king, Sebastian. On 4 August 1578 the Battle of Alcácer-Quibir (to the Portuguese) or Ksar El Kebir (to the Moroccans - Alcazar in English) is fought in northern Morocco. The outcome is defeat for the deposed sultan and the death of King Sebastian. With no heir, this leaves the Portuguese facing a succession crisis at home. Abu Abdallah drowns while trying to escape, and the victorious Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I actually dies of natural causes during the battle, although the news is only released to his people afterwards.

1578 - 1603

Brother. Last of the great Saadi rulers.

1578 - 1603

Ahmad I is the most famous of the Saadis. A contemporary of Elizabeth I of England, he is responsible for building the El Badi Palace in Marrakech. His death robs the country of a strong ruler and anarchy sets in, with rival rulers claiming the throne, most notably the Alawi in the east, and the rest of the state being divided between the late sultan's sons.

1591

A Saadi invasion hastens the decline of the Songhai empire. The Songhai forces are routed at the Battle of Tondibi by the Saadi gunpowder weapons despite vastly superior Songhai numbers. Gao, Timbuktu, and Jenne (Djenné), are sacked and the Songhai are destroyed as a regional power. The Saadi take over control of Mali while the Songhai themselves retreat to the Dendi region of what is now Niger and reform a smaller kingdom.

1603 - 1627

Civil war follows the death of Ahmad I al-Mansur and quickly results in fractures appearing in the state's control. The main Saadi ruler of Morocco is largely based in Marrakech, but a splinter faction lead by his brother soon governs a limited territory from its base at Fez, holding only local power now and during the reign of Zidan Abu Maali. Salé also splits away, gaining a minor ruler of its own (one Sidi al-Ayachi). At the same time, the Alawi begin to increase their power in southern Morocco.

1603 - 1627

Son. Ruled Morocco except Fez.

1603 - 1608

Brother. Seized Marrakech and Fez from his brother.

1604 - 1613

Brother. Ruled splinter state of Fez.

1609

Although they may have lost most their empire thanks to Morocco's invasion of 1591, the Dendi kings of Lulami have not given up hope of reclaiming their lost lands. The residents of one of their most important former cities, Jenne (Djenné), now rebel against their Saadi governors and the Dendi kingdom supports them. The Saadi eventually recover the city but little in the way of support is provided from Morocco itself. The city is soon abandoned to the Fulbe and Tuareg nomads, and the Bamana of Jenne soon leads an independent state based around the reduced city.

1613 - 1623

Son. Ruled splinter state of Fez.

1623 - 1627

Brother. Ruled splinter state of Fez.

1627 - 1631

Son? Ruled Morocco except Fez.

1628

Marrakech and Fez are brought back under central control, but many other territories remain outside Saadi control, especially in the south. Even the Ottomans have taken a slice in the form of Oujda, while various outlying tribes and warlords refuse to obey the Saadi.

The city of Oujda is located on Morocco's far north-eastern border with Algeria, making it an ideal target for Ottoman seizure in the early seventeenth century as Saadi power was weakening

1631

The country's fragmentation is further increased when Muhammad I seizes power in Tafilalt, in the central eastern region of the country. He is regarded as the founder of the Alawi dynasty.

1631 - 1636

Son of Zidan. Assassinated

1636 - 1655

Brother.

1636 - 1641

Mohammed esh Sheikh es Seghir makes a concerted effort to restore control over the entire region. Now, in 1641, Sidi al-Ayachi at Salé is attacked, His self-proclaimed republic of the same name (also known as the republic of Bou Regreg) is swept away when he is killed in battle.

c.1640s

Just like the Saadi before him, Muhammad II of the Alawi begins his empire-building by uniting the Draa river valley and the Sahara region of Morocco under his rule. In the meantime the Saadi are attempting to maintain their hold on power whilst attending to region duties such as deposing the Dendi king in 1639 at the request of his brother.

1655 - 1659

Murdered in Marrakech.

1659

The last Saadi sultan is overthrown when Marrakech is conquered by the Alawi dynasty. Alawi leader, Muhammad, does not yet rule all of Morocco, but the only serious opposition is not in a position to prevent him from becoming the de facto power in the country.

Alawi / Alaouite Dynasty (The Western Kingdom & Western Sahara)
AD 1664 - Present Day

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The modern constitutional kingdom of Morocco is located on the north-west African coastline, in territory that contains large stretches of desert and rugged mountainous terrain. It is neighboured by Algeria to the east, and the disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south, beyond which lies Mauritania. It also controls the southern straits of Gibraltar, making it the closest point in Africa to Spain. The kingdom has its capital at Rabat, although its best-known city (and largest) is Casablanca, rivalled perhaps by Marrakech. The name, Morocco, derives from the latter city via the Spanish 'Marruecos' and the Portuguese 'Marrocos'.

The Alawi (Alaouites) were natives of southern Morocco. Following the death of Saadi Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur in 1603, the Alawi initially ruled only in Tafilalt (in the central eastern region of the country), along with some parts of southern Morocco. Their opposition to the Saadi rulers was a cause of the country slipping into anarchy over the next half a century. Completing a process begun by his father, Mulay Al-Rashid, second sultan of the Alawi, united the country under a single ruler in 1666-1670 and ended any opposition, albeit with a smaller kingdom than before. The dynasty claims the same line of descent as the tenth century Fatamids of what is now Tunisia, from Ali ibn Abi Talib (the Rashidun caliph of 656-661) and his wife, Fatima.

The kingdom's alternative name is 'The Western Kingdom', which is simply a comment on its geographical location in relation to the users of that name, the North African nations of the Mediterranean coast. Morocco is a blend of Arabic and indigenous Berber influences, but its proximity to Spain has allowed a good degree of European influence to seep in too. Its relations with and early twentieth century control by France has made French the dominant European language after Arabic and Berber.

The Western Sahara is a mainly desert territory that is located between modern Morocco and Mauritania. It is the subject of a decades-long dispute between Morocco and the Algerian-backed Polisario Front. The territory is phosphate-rich and is believed to have offshore oil deposits. Most of it has been under Moroccan control since 1976. Western Sahara fell under Spanish rule in 1884, becoming a Spanish province in 1934. A gradual increase in national consciousness and anti-colonial sentiment during the subsequent decades led to a guerrilla insurgency by the Spanish Sahara's indigenous inhabitants, the nomadic Saharawis, in the early 1970s. The Polisario Front was set up on 10 May 1973 and established itself as the sole representative of the Saharan people. Some 100,000 refugees still live in Polisario's camps in Algeria, and Western Sahara's political position is still uncertain.

(Information by Peter Kessler and the John De Cleene Archive, with additional information from Morocco Since 1830: A History, C R Pennell (2000), and from External Links: BBC Country Profiles, and Administrative Divisions of Countries (Statoids.com), and The mystery of Morocco's missing king (The Economist).)

1631 - 1635

Seized Tafilalt from the Saadi.

1635 - 1664

Son. Ruled Tafilalt. Gained full independence in 1659.

c.1640s

Just like the Saadi before him, Muhammad II begins his empire-building by uniting the Draa river valley and the Sahara region of Morocco under his rule.

1659

The last Saadi sultan is overthrown when Marrakech is conquered by the Alawis. Muhammad does not yet rule all of Morocco, but the only serious opposition is not in a position to prevent him from becoming the de facto power in the country.

The city of Fez formed the first capital of the Alawi Moroccans, here showing the El-Chorfa gate looming over the medina at the city's heart

1659 - 1664

Ruled much of Morocco from 1659.

1664

Internal feuding breaks out into open hostility when Muhammad II is opposed by his half-brother, Moulay Al-Rashid. Muhammad II is killed, allowing Al-Rashid to secure power and proclaim himself sultan of Morocco in the same year.

1664 - 1672

Half-brother. Proclaimed sultan of Morocco 22.10.1664.

1666 - 1670

Al-Rashid takes Fes, ending the possible rule of Saadi survivors there. Then he takes the coastal area of the country, the Sus and the Anti-Atlas areas, securing his control of Morocco. In 1670, weakened by Morocco's internal wars, the Alawi retreat from the Songhai empire.

1672

Unknown. Another half-brother?

1673 - 1684

Often missing from lists. Possible half-brother or uncle?

1672 - 1684

Half-brother of Moulay Al-Rashid. Joint ruler.

1684 - 1727

Former joint ruler (1672-1684).

1679 - 1689

Ismail Ibn Sharif begins the process of creating a unified Moroccan state in the face of opposition by Berber tribes and colonising forces. He starts with defeats of the Ottomans in 1679 and 1682, continues in 1684 by seizing the port of Tangier from the English (which they had commanded since 1661), and in 1689 he drives the Spanish out of Larache. The Ottomans are defeated again in 1695-1696.

1727

Abdalmalik is the heir of Ismail Ibn Sharif until, shortly before his father's death, he falls out of favour. Ismail is succeeded upon his death by Ahmad II instead, although this causes further trouble in 1728.

1727 - 1728

Son. Overthrown by his own wives and Abdalmalik.

1728

Half-brother. Usurper who reigned very briefly.

1728 - 1729

Restored. Deposed on the day of his death.

1729 - 1735

Half-brother. Deposed.

1735

Abdallah is deposed for the first of three times by various of his brothers as they fight for control of Morocco.

1735 - 1736

Brother. Deposed.

1736

Restored.

1736 - 1738

Half-brother of Ali. Deposed.

1738 - 1740

Half-brother. Deposed.

1740 - 1745

Restored.

1745

Half-brother of Al-Mostadi. Deposed.

1745 - 1757

Restored.

1757 - 1790

Son.

1777

Mohammed ben Abdallah is the first world leader to recognise the independence of the newly-proclaimed United States, later providing some support to US vessels in Moroccan waters.

1784 - 1794

Protected from the Barbary pirates of Algiers during the American Revolution, thanks to its alliances with Morocco and France, American shipping loses that protection from 1784 and the end of the Treaty of Alliance. Subsequently, US merchant shipping continually falls foul of successive pirate raids in the Mediterranean, launched from Morocco and Algiers. Despite diplomatic efforts, large payments of tribute are demanded for the release of captured American crews, and the US regularly pays up to a million dollars a year to ensure the safe passage of its ships.

The somewhat colourful view of the Barbary pirates masked their relentless pursuit of captures and their accumulation of wealth at the expense of innocent merchantmen

1790 - 1795

Although Yazid gains the throne following his father's death, he is only one of six claimants for that throne, with another brother, Slimane emerging victorious from the resultant civil war in 1795.

1790 - 1792

Son. Killed.

1790

Half-brother. Proclaimed sultan.

1792 - 1822

Brother.

1801 - 1805

Having recommissioned its navy in 1794, the USA is becoming increasingly reluctant to pay tribute to ensure the safe passage of its merchant ships in the Mediterranean. The pasha of Tripoli demands fresh tribute of the new government of Thomas Jefferson which is refused, so Tripoli declares war on the USA. Morocco and Algiers do not join Tripoli in the conflict. The small but highly modern American navy defeats Tripoli's vessels in a number of naval skirmishes during the First Barbary War, until Tripoli agrees peace terms and the US buys back its captured seamen.

1815 - 1816

The Second Barbary War is fought by the USA in response to renewed pirate raids while it has been preoccupied with the War of 1812. A squadron of US ships captures several Algerian vessels and, after negotiations, the dey of Algiers agrees to return American captives and vessels in return for a large one-off final payment. Although this concludes the war, it does not conclude the piracy threat, so the following year, Britain sends a 'diplomatic mission' that is eventually forced to bombard Algiers for nine hours on 27 August 1816. The dey loses many of his corsairs and shore defences, and the threat of organised Barbary piracy is ended once and for all.

1822 - 1859

Nephew. Son of Hisham.

1830 - 1834

Algiers is annexed by France and created a colony. Sultan Abderrahmane supports the resistance movement against this occupation, encouraging Algerian Islamic scholar Abd-el-Kader to fight the European invaders. The sultan is also called upon by the inhabitants of the Algerian city of Tlemcen to invade and protect it from the French. This he does, and his nephew, Prince Moulay Ali, is named caliph of Tlemcen.

1859 - 1860

The Spanish-Moroccan War, or African War, begins with a disagreement over the Spanish-controlled coastal city of Ceuta. The Moroccan forces accept defeat after the Battle of Tetuan and Spain gains a further enclave, increasing the size of Ceuta in the process.

1859 - 1873

Son.

1873 - 1894

Nephew. Son of Prince Abbas.

1884

Spain creates a protectorate of its Moroccan coastal territories, showing no sign of relinquishing its hold on them. A large swathe of this territory is the Western Sahara, a mainly desert region that is located between Morocco and Mauritania.

1894 - 1908

Son. Deposed following concessions by France. Died 1943.

1904 - 1906

As a progression of the increasing colonial hold over Morocco, France and Spain carve out zones of influence in the country. France's sphere of influence is recognised by Great Britain but this provokes a strong reaction from the German empire which also wants a slice of the action. A looming crisis in 1905 is resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. For his part in 'allowing' the French to gain a foothold, Abdelaziz is overthrown in 1908 by his brother, but he too struggles to improve the situation in Morocco's favour.

1908 - 1912

Elder brother and rival sultan. Abdicated.

1912

Under the terms of the Treaty of Fez, a French Protectorate is established in Morocco which consists of the territory between the Corridor of Taza (between the Rif Mountains and Middle Atlas Mountains in the north of the country) and the River Draa. A small protectorate of northern territories near the Straits of Gibraltar remains under Spanish control, and Spain also gains protective powers over the northern and southern Sahara zones. Colonists pour into the country, buying up the best land, modernising its infrastructure, and exploiting its resources. The Moroccan tribes war amongst each other, some having sided with the French from the first instance, but eventual agreement is reached and a joint Franco-Moroccan administration is created. Abdelhafid is not included in France's plans so he is encouraged to abdicate.

1912 - 1927

Brother.

1921 - 1926

A Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains is led by Abd el-Krim. This leads to the declaration of the 'Republic of the Rif'. The uprising is eventually suppressed by French and Spanish troops. The French move the court from Fez to the more secure Rabat, and this remains the country's capital from this point onwards.

1927 - 1953

Son. Deposed. Exiled to Madagascar 1953-1955. Restored.

1934

Western Sahara becomes a Spanish province. A gradual increase in national consciousness and anti-colonial sentiment during subsequent decades leads to a guerrilla insurgency by the Spanish Sahara's indigenous inhabitants, the nomadic Saharawis (in the early 1970s).

1943

The Moroccan cause receives a boost with the foundation of the Istiqlal Party (the Independence Party), which presses for independence with discrete support from the United States. It is the Istiqlal Party that subsequently provides most of the leadership for the nationalist movement.

1948

The creation of the state of Israel is proclaimed on on 14 May 1948. On the following day the neighbouring Arab states of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria attack Israel, prompting the start of the Arab-Israeli War. Saudi Arabia sends its own military contingent to support the Egyptians. The war lasts for a year before a ceasefire is agreed.

During the war violent anti-Jewish riots break out in Morocco's Oujda and Djerada, with forty-four Jews being killed (part of the overall Mizrahi Jews grouping). Following the war's end a total of eighteen thousand Moroccan Jews leave the country for Israel. Further migrations follow but in much smaller numbers.

1953 - 1955

France exiles Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar. The unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa is selected as his replacement, sparking active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates.

In Oujda, Moroccans attack French, Jewish, and other European residents in the streets in one of the most notable acts of the unrest. France is forced to give way and allow Mohammed V to return in 1955, and negotiations that lead to Moroccan independence get underway in the following year.

1953 - 1955

Distant relative and French puppet king. Abdicated.

1955 - 1956

Jewish migration back to Israel peaks at about seventy-five thousand in all, just as Morocco achieves independence. Such migration is banned in 1956, but around eighteen thousand Mizrahi Jews still find their way out.

1955 - 1961

Restored. First king of Morocco in 1957.

1956 - 1957

Morocco gains independence from France and Spain in 1956, ending the protectorates, but not reclaiming the two coastal enclaves from Spain despite the full restoration of the sultanate of Morocco. The following year, Sultan Mohammed drops his traditional title in favour of calling himself malik, or king of Morocco. Mohammed also captures Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War (which is known as the Forgotten War in Spain - Ifni is officially handed over to Morocco in 1969).

The return of Mohammed V to Morocco in 1955 from his exile in Madagascar was a symbol of the country's growing independence, with full independence being granted in 1956

1961

With Israel's Mossad agency secretly agitating within Morocco to end the migration ban on Jews, Operation Janchin is financially backed by a US-based Jewish organisation. The fifty million dollars of funding they supply help to organise undercover migration out of Morocco. King Mohammed V abandons the ban with the result that over seventy thousand Jews leave in the next three years.

1961 - 1999

Son. Died July.

1963

The Sand War is fought against Algeria when Morocco claims portions of western Algerian territory. The war quickly bogs down into a stalemate which remains unresolved until an agreement is reached in 1972. In the same year, 1963, Morocco holds its first general elections.

1971

With parliament suspended by the king since 1965, an attempt is made to depose him in this year. The intent is to establish a republic but the cause fails.

1975 - 1991

Having claimed the non-self-governing territory of Spanish Sahara as its 'Southern Provinces', Morocco now annexes the territory despite protests by Algeria, and it soon becomes known as the Western Sahara. This prompts the region's inhabitants to launch a guerrilla war which lasts until a ceasefire is agreed in 1991. Various subsequent attempts to conduct a peace process fail to break the political deadlock.

1999 - Present

Son. Born 1963.

2011

A wave of popular protests against a deeply unpopular and dictatorial government in Tunisia forces the president to flee the country, paving the way for fresh elections and a new start. The protests strike a chord in Arabs across North Africa and the Near East, and similar protests are triggered in Bahrain, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Yemen.

Morocco's protests are much less forceful than in some places, with the king enjoying a strong following amongst his people. Force is not used to quell the protests, with the police being told to keep a low profile, and constitutional reform is promised by the king.

2018

The king meets a German mixed martial arts champion by the name of Abu Azaitar. Mohammed, already famously shy and awkward in public, is almost entirely absent from public view from this point onwards despite the best efforts of the makhzen, the massive state bureaucracy which includes elected officials.

Abdelatif Hammouchi, the country's head of security from 2015, sets about reversing many of the king's political and social reforms. He intimidates the press into deferring to him, and limits academic freedom, especially through the employment of sexual blackmail.

Son. Born 2003. Heir apparent, to succeed as Hassan III.