African Kingdoms

Songhai Empire (Africa)
c.AD 7th Century - 1901

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The pre-history of Africa contains a far longer period of human habitation than any other area on Earth, thanks to it being the cradle of humankind's evolution. Much of this pre-history involves a great deal of uncertainty in which small windows of opportunity to view events can be gained through archaeology. Even more recent prehistory is shrouded in uncertainty, requiring analysis and archaeology to help define it.

The Songhai (or Songhoi) state existed in Africa in one form or another for over a thousand years. This period covers the first settlement in Kukiya on the eastern edge of what would become the Mali empire and under which it enjoyed semi-vassal status, through to its continuation in what is now Niger as the Dendi empire.

Situated in the heart of modern Mali in an area called Western Sudan (not to be confused with the country of the same name), the beginnings of the Songhai empire are usually dated to circa 700, after Berbers had arrived and settled on the middle River Niger to create a small state which later became centred on Gao.

Those Berbers were members of the Lamta and Howara tribes from Tripolitania (now in Libya). Once along the River Niger, the Berber arrivals intermixed with native groups such as the riverine Sorko people who had settlements along the river, the Gao people who hunted along the river, and the Do people who farmed the river's fertile banks.

It is possible that this Berber migration was triggered by warfare along the North African coast as the Eastern Roman empire was reconquering former Vandali strongholds in the sixth century or by the exarchate of Africa being conquered by the Islamic empire.

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the John De Cleene Archive, from the Tarikh al-Fattash and Tarikh al-Sudan (seventeenth century Timbuktu chronicles which end in 1599 and 1656 respectively), from Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents, John O Hunwick (2003), from Tedzkiret en-nisiān fi Akhbar molouk es-Soudān (in French), Octave Houdas (Ed & translator, Paris 1901), from Towards an Understanding of the African Experience from Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam (University Press of America, 1990), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from African States and Rulers, John Stewart (McFarland, 2005), from The New Atlas of African History, G S P Freeman-Grenville (Rex Collins, London, 1991), from Times Atlas of World History (Maplewood, 1979), from The Telltale Scribes of Timbuktu, Peter Gwin (National Geographic), from Songhay, Paul Stoller (Encyclopaedia of World Cultures, Vol 9: Africa and the Middle East, G K Hall & Co, 1995), from The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol 3, R Oliver (Ed, Cambridge University Press, 2001), and from External Links: The Met Museum, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and The Invasion of Morocco in 1591 and the Saadian Dynasty, Jonathan Michel, and Nyaani Mansa Mamudu and the End of the Malian Empire, Yves Person (Publications of the French Society of the History of Overseasers, 1981, and available via Persée (in French)).)

c.500 BC

The ancestors of the Songhai people are located in what are now Burkina Faso and south-western Niger at least until about 500 BC. The foundations of the city of Kukiya on the banks of the River Niger are laid during the second millennium BC.

The modern border between Benin and Niger is probably very much as it was at the start of the Songhai state's formation in the late seventh century

c.AD 690

Having emigrated into the Gao region near the great bend in the River Niger, nomadic Berbers of the Lamta and Howara tribes from Tripolitania have gradually intermingled with the local inhabitants.

These include the Sorko people, skilled fishermen and canoeists who have established settlements along the River Niger to the south-east of the Gao settlement and who provide water transport for others. The Gao people are hunters who specialise in catching riverine animals. The Do people are farmers who cultivate the fertile lands which border the river.

Around AD 690 the Songhai state is formed on this region. The state's early capital is at Kukiya (or Kukia) about one hundred and thirty kilometres to the south of Gao.

The ruins of the ancient parts of the medieval Songhai capital of Gao are gradually being exposed by archaeology, with great stone defences being erected in the tenth century

Za Dynasty in Kukiya (Songhai State) (Africa)
c.AD 690 - 800

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The early Songhai state was formed by a newly-formed intermixed group which was made up of natives of the River Niger's great bend and migrant Berbers of the Lamta and Howara tribes from Tripolitania (now in Libya).

The native element included the riverine Sorko people who had settlements along the River Niger, the Gao people who hunted along the river, and the Do people who farmed the river's fertile banks. The latter two groups are sometimes collectively referred to as the Gabibi.

It is possible that the Berber migration was triggered by warfare along the North African coast as the Eastern Roman empire was reconquering former Vandali strongholds in the sixth century. Or by the exarchate of Africa being conquered by the Islamic empire. Other elements may have arrived from much farther away. The Za dynasty founder, Alayaman, reputedly originated in Yemen. The claim is not impossible as Berber groups in what is now Sudan are known to have emigrated west from there at the early stages of later empire formation.

The early state had a total of fourteen named rulers, although records are sparse for this period, especially towards its end where the state appears to lapse into obscurity for about two hundred years. An alternative dating regime which is not followed here tends to move forwards in time the life of the founder, Za Alayaman. This cancels out the two century-long period of obscurity in favour of a continuous dynasty which survives up to about 1260.

Each ruler was titled a dia, meaning 'king' (plural dias). Their capital was at Kukiya (alternatively shown as Koukya or Kukia), about one hundred and thirty kilometres to the south of Gao (which today is located in Mali).

Trade had flourished by the start of the eleventh century, bringing Gao ever more deeply into the state's sphere of influence. Eventually this city replaced the old capital of Kukiya which fell into disuse afterwards (by the fifteenth century), and was eventually fully abandoned to become the archaeological site it is today.

fl c.690

Za dynasty founder at Kukiya.

fl c.700

Entirely unknown apart from a name.

fl c.710

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.720

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.730

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.740

A name in recorded oral tradition.

c.750

Tradition describes Old Ghana as being founded in the early eighth century by a man named Dinga. He is ascribed an origin in the east - supposed to mean Aswan in Egypt - and is claimed as leaving many children behind him as he migrates across the western Sudan.

A typical Old Ghana empire-period village is shown here, part of an early medieval state which arose in uncertain circumstances following a period of tribal migration and regional unrest

fl c.750

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.760

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.770

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.775

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.780

A name in recorded oral tradition.

c.780 - 785

A name in recorded oral tradition.

786 - 789

A name in recorded oral tradition.

791 - 800

A name in recorded oral tradition.

800 - c.1010

Unknown number of kings (sometimes omitted).

990

Old Ghana has conquered Audaghost, at the north-western edge of the empire, by this stage in its existence. Details of the event are not available. Some way to the east the state of Igodomigodo is now a thriving kingdom.

The ruins of Koumbi Saleh have been excavated in modern times but, although the city was clearly at its height during the period in which Old Ghana reached its greatest extent, it cannot categorically be confirmed as the site of the empire's capital

c.1010

The Songhai state coverts to Islam under the leadership of Kusoy Muslim Dam. It is likely he who moves the capital to the more prominent town of Gao.

Za Dynasty in Gao (Songhai State) (Africa)
c.AD 1010 - 1275

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Za Kusoy (or Dia Kossoi) was the first Songhai ruler at Kukiya to convert to Islam, around AD 1010. This may have been a practice only of the higher nobility though, with the common classes continuing to practice earlier native religions. It was also likely to be the same ruler who moved the capital to the more prominent location of Gao, turning the previously small state into a Muslim kingdom.

Trade was now flourishing, having brought Gao ever more deeply into the state's sphere of influence. Eventually this city fully replaced the old capital of Kukiya which fell into disuse afterwards (by the fifteenth century), and was eventually fully abandoned to become the archaeological site it is today.

Gao probably originated as the principal town of the Gao people, one constituent ingredient in the formation of the Songhai people. The town began to attract increasing numbers of North African merchants during the reign of Za Kusoy.

Again, towards the end of the dynasty records become sparse. Each ruler was titled a dia, meaning 'king' (plural dias). Again an alternative dating regime which is not followed here tends to move forwards the entire timeline of ruling kings to cancel out a century of obscurity in favour of a continuous dynasty which survives up to about 1260.

fl c.1010

First converter to Islam.

c.1010

Records for the Za state at Kukiya are limited to say the least, surviving largely in oral tradition. That state apparently lapses into obscurity for about two hundred years between around AD 800-1000.

An alternative dating regime (not followed here) moves forwards in time the life of the founder, Za Alayaman to cancel out the period of obscurity in favour of a continuous dynasty which survives up to about 1260. This would make Kusoy Muslim Dam a direct relative of Kinkin of Kukiya.

This twelfth century commemorative stele was created by the little-known Za dynasty of Gao, inscribed in ornamental Kufic and issued by a queen of the ruling dynasty

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

1062 - 1076

Fourteen years of war against the fanatical Almoravids ends with the capture and burning of the capital of Old Ghana at Kumbi Saleh. The Almoravids are unable to hold onto their prize though, and the much-weakened Old Ghanaians retake it.

The Mandinka of Kangaba take the opportunity to break away from Old Ghanaian rule, while the weakening of Old Ghana seems to be a major trigger for the migration (or increased migration) into the region of the Akan people of the Sahel.

The city of Sijilmasa in southern Morocco was one of the very first Almoravid targets for attack and defeat in the building of their empire

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

1100 - 1230

Old Ghana ceases to be a commercial or military power after 1100, at least partially due to new trade routes being opened to its east which rob it of most of its trade in gold and salt.

For a brief period, until about 1230, the rabidly anti-Muslim Sosso people control a kingdom which makes up the southern portions of the Old Ghanaian empire (and briefly the Kangaba state too), but the Almoravid revolution effectively halts the growth of kingdoms and empires in the Sahel for almost a century.

One group of Mandinka, the Kangaba, founded the great empire of Mali with a dynasty which continued virtually uninterrupted for thirteen centuries, well after the empire fell

A name in recorded oral tradition.

1235

Mari Jata I founds the Mali empire by taking the Kangaba clan state of his relatively hostile half-brother, Danagaram Tumo, and turning it into a major regional power.

1237

The Old Ghana kingdom effectively falls to Mali in 1237. Akan people are now migrating freely into former Old Ghana territory, if they had not already been doing so since about AD 700, as are Ga people from Benin and beyond.

The trading state of Bonoman which has been created by the Abron people now forms a medieval Akan kingdom which gives birth to several small Akan states.

Akan people - photographed here around the beginning of the twentieth century - migrated into regions of modern Ghana from around the eleventh century AD, but probably in smaller family groups rather than as a single mass movement of people

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

c.1150

A name in recorded oral tradition.

c.1150 - 1260

Unknown number of kings (unless cancelled by new chronology).

? - c.1260

Unknown final king. Dethroned by Mali until Sunni dynasty begun.

c.1260 - 1275

Under Uli, Mali occupies the better established and far more ancient Songhai state. Around 1275 it seems that a Mali official flees to Gao where he establishes his own Sunni dynasty over Songhai. Mali's kings from Uli onwards continuously attack Gao to ensure the payment of tribute.

Sunni Dynasty in Gao (Songhai State) (Africa)
c.AD 1275 - 1492

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The first great king of the Songhai was Sunni Ali. He was a Muslim like the Mali kings and Gao rulers before him. He was also an efficient warrior who conquered many Songhai neighbours, including in time what remained of the Mali empire.

The early capital of Gao fell under the indirect control of the Mali empire during the reign of Sundiata Keita, the half-brother of Danagaram Tumo of Kangaba who founded the empire in 1235. Around 1275, it seems that a Mali official fled to Gao where he established his own dynasty, either during or immediately after the short-lived reign of the insane Khalifa of Mali.

The kings of Gao were named sunni or sonni meaning 'replacement' or 'liberator' kings, but their new capital at Gao continuously had to be attacked by Mali to keep the Sunni dynasty paying tribute. The old capital of Kukiya on the banks of the River Niger fell into disuse after this, and was eventually fully abandoned to become the archaeological site it is today.

fl c.1275

Mali official who founded a new dynasty at Gao.

1285

Following the death of Sundiata Keita of the Mali empire there has been a power struggle between his sons over who will become emperor. The former slave general, Sakura, takes control in 1285 (perhaps through a palace coup) to become a successful restorer of the empire.

Those imperial borders are expanded under Sakura, especially along the River Gambia and, potentially, the borders of Songhai are tested under its new leader, Sunni Ali Kolon, albeit with no firm outcome.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.1320

Presumably the king who submitted to Mali?

1325

While passing through the desert on his return from a visit to Mecca, Mansa Musa of the Mali empire learns that one of his generals, Sangamandia, has conquered the Songhai capital of Gao, thereby vastly expanding Mali territory so that it reaches the Atlantic. Mansa Musa visits Gao on the way, receiving the submission of the Songhai king.

The Mandinka and other peoples of the Manden region of south-western Mali gather every seven years to celebrate when a new thatch roof is installed in top of the kamablon (or 'House of Speech') in the village of Kangaba which was built in 1653

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

fl c.1375

A name in recorded oral tradition.

1375

Having turned away from his father's more tyrannical practices, Musa II of the Mali empire finds himself being sidelined by a powerful vizier named Mari Djata. During this period the eastern Songhai provinces which are centred around Gao began to pull away from the empire.

Excavations which were undertaken within and near the modern city of Gao in Mali, at the sites of Gao Ancien and Gao Saney during the 1990s and early 2000s, uncovered the remains of two large brick-built ancient structures and several residential structures

A war against the Berbers for control of Gao devastates the city but, when Mari Djata's troops lay siege to a location which is recorded as Takedda or Tadmekka, they are able to enforce a suitable peace agreement.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

A name in recorded oral tradition.

c.1410 - 1440

A name in recorded oral tradition.

1430 - 1433

The states of the Mossi group to the south-east are now forming in the Niger bend. Their raids towards the fertile valley of the great river which hitherto have been uncertain and isolated begin to become frequent and systematic, starting with an attack on Benqa, near Lake Debo.

The Mossi people have a long and complex history which dates back to the eleventh century when they established several powerful kingdoms in the region, the most notable of which was the Mossi state, founded by the warrior princess, Yennenga

The beginnings of Mossi pressure coincide roughly with additional pressure from the north. The Tuareg in 1433 seize Walata and Timbuktu, thereby cutting off Mali from Saharan trade other than via the state of Diara (in the Nioro region).

c.1440 - 1464

A name in recorded oral tradition.

1464 - 1492

Occupied Timbuktu and greatly expanded Songhai power.

1468

With Sunni Ali Ber's accession the Songhai truly start to become empire-builders, eclipsing their former rulers, the Mali empire. Sunni Ali occupies Timbuktu, an important trading post on the trans-Saharan trading route and more recently the Mali empire's capital. He quickly creates the last great empire of the western Sudan.

1483

Mossi group attacks on the Mali have continued until now, when a great defeat is inflicted upon them by Sunni Ali Ber of the Songhai. With the Songhai already long since ceding control of the upper river, the state of Diara is now best placed to control trans-Saharan trade.

The traditions of the Mali empire and its mounted troops which are shown here were carried into the Songhai empire

Mali retains great core strength, but its domain is now limited to the upper Niger while Songhai attacks and takes Wagadu, the heart of former Old Ghana.

1492 - 1493

Son. Last Sunni ruler. Rejected in favour of the Askia.

1492 - 1493

Sunni Abu-Bakry Baro is seen by his critics and opponents as not being a faithful Muslim. This gives one of his generals - Mohammed Ture - the opportunity to challenge his succession as ruler of the Songhai empire. His challenge proves to be successful and he replaces Sunni Abu-Bakry Baro to found the Askia dynasty.

Askia Dynasty in Gao (Songhai Empire) (Africa)
AD 1492 - 1591

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Following the death of Sunni Abu-Bakry Baro of the Sunni dynasty of Songhai rulers at Gao, Muslim factions rebelled against his successor. Instead, Askia Muhammad (formerly known as Muhammad Ture) was installed as the first and greatest ruler of the Askia dynasty.

Under the rule of the Askias the Songhai empire reached its zenith. With the decline of the previously dominant Mali empire the Songhai were able to expand into their territory, already having taken Timbuktu in 1468. Under Songhai rule, both Timbuktu and Jenne (Djenné) on the River Niger - both of which lay to the west of Gao - flourished as centres of Islamic learning, and Islam was actively promoted.

This was the last great empire of the Western Sudan, but its years of glory were brief thanks to an invasion by superior forces from Morocco. Internal conflict also contributed to its downfall. Government was much more centralised than previously. The ruler was an absolute monarch but, despite having around seven hundred eunuchs at the court in Gao, Songhai kings were never fully secure on their thrones. Many were deposed or died violent deaths, often at the hands of relatives.

1493 - 1528

Raised during Muslim rebellion. Dynasty founder. Died 1538.

1493 - 1528

As the new ruler of the Songhai empire, Mohammed Ture oversees a programme of expansion which extends the empire's borders to Taghaza in the north and the borders of Yatenga in the south, from Air to the north-east and Fouta Djallon in Guinea on Africa's west coast.

He also organises an efficient trade routes system, along with the administrative necessities to ensure that it functions. Despite all his good work, though, he is overthrown by his own son and lives to see him and various other sons bicker over the succession.

1499 - 1502

Under the leadership of its vigorous new dynasty, the Songhai in 1499-1500 occupy Bagana, another Old Ghana location. Not without some difficulty, they expel Mali's governor of Zalen in 1501-1502. Mali therefore loses its last remaining niche in the Sahara, although it perhaps still holds suzerainty over Fuuta-Tooro.

The 'Tomb of Askia' - built at the end of the fifteenth century AD - is in Gao, Mali, and is believed to be the burial place of Askia Mohammad I, one of the Songhai empire's greatest rulers

The Songhai have now extended within reach of upper Senegal and Mali's Bambugu gold mines, but this region is too peripheral for them to further push their offensive, although they undoubtedly raid the Soninke country of Galam in 1508 or 1509 (Gadiygu, in Bakel country).

The common threat of the Fulani and the Mossi, as well as the eastwards orientation of Songhai imperialism serves to defuse the conflict between Songhai and Mail. Cut off from the Saharan ports, Mali no longer hinders Songhai from dominating the vital Saharan trade routes.

From 1498, Askiya Mohammed has largely concentrated his forces against the Mossi and, from 1513 he does the same against the Hausa countries (Katsina, Kebi, and Aïr). The struggle against the Denyanké Fulani must do the rest so that, in 1507 or 1508, peace is concluded between Songhai and Mali.

The fourteenth century Sankore mosque which is shown here on a postcard of about 1905 was one of the leading centres of Islamic learning and scholarship in Timbuktu

The latter retains the middle Niger region which includes, from north to south, the Sibiridugu, the Kala between the Niger and Bani, and the Bendugu on the right bank of the Bani.

1528 - 1531

Son and usurper. Assassinated.

1528

Having already achieved a high point in its expansion and organisation, the Songhai empire under the Askia dynasty begins to decline. Askia Musa, having deposed his own father, is surrounded by relatives who also want a taste of power and he does his best to kill as many of them as possible.

Ultimately he is assassinated by Mohammad Benkan and a group of supporting brothers and relatives. Mohammad Benkan manages to hold onto that power for just six years before he too is overthrown.

1531 - 1537

Cousin and usurper. Deposed by Ismail.

1537 - 1539

Brother of Askia Musa. Died of natural causes.

1539 - 1549

Brother.

1542 - 1558

Askia Ishaq resumes the offensive against Mali in 1542 by attacking Ta'aba in Bendugu. This is followed up with a surprise raid in 1545-1546 on the Mali capital of Mansa, which is sacked but not occupied.

Details are little known when it comes to the lives of ordinary people within the Songhai empire at the height of its power (let alone during other periods in its existence)

The great Askia Daoud continues this pressure and is able to impose peace following another victory in 1558, under which terms he also claims in marriage a daughter of Mali's mansa. By now Mali's border has been pushed as far back as Sansanding (the domain of Kala Cha'a, resident in Kokri), although Mali appears to be showing signs of recovery.

1549 - 1582

Brother. Left a strong and united empire.

1549 - 1582

Askia Daoud succeeds his deceased brother unopposed and manages to rule over an empire which sees remarkably little internal strife. In fact Daoud is able to expand the empire's borders even farther.

He is able to organise various campaigns against subject territories which fail to show proper obedience and the Songhai are usually successful. Their one failure comes in 1561-1562 against the Mossi kingdoms of what is now Burkina Faso.

Daoud's death plunges the empire into renewed instability as his sons vie against one another to control it. Their efforts so weaken the empire that it is exposed to attack from the north.

With the collapse of the Songhai empire following the Moroccan invasion of 1591, the Dendi remnant of the empire attempted to free the city of Jenne (here showing the city's mosque) from Saadi rule, but with the result that Jenne became independent of both sides

1571 - 1591

Both in 1571-1572 and 1590-1591 the Songhai raid Bendugu and Kala, which appear to have returned to Mali's orbit and now harbour Askia political adversaries. While Mali's external relations are now very poor and the empire is barely entering the historical record, evidence suggests that it survives still, and may even be experiencing a resurgence in power.

1582 - 1586

Son.

1586 - 1588

Brother.

1588 - 1591

Brother. Killed in battle. Songhai empire destroyed.

1591

A Moroccan invasion terminates the empire. The Songhai forces are routed at the Battle of Tondibi by the Saadi gunpowder weapons despite vastly superior Songhai numbers. Gao, Timbuktu, and Jenne (Djenné), are sacked and the Songhai are destroyed as a regional power.

The Saadi Moroccans take over control of Mali while the Songhai themselves retreat to the Dendi region of what is now Niger and reform a smaller kingdom. Branches of the Songhai Askia dynasty remain in Timbuktu and Gao (the latter provide a rival to the kingship of Lulami in the eighteenth century).

The Battle of Tondibi in 1591 was a disaster for the already-weakened Songhai empire as its troops and defences were totally unprepared to face gunpowder weapons which included small canon

1591 - 1618

Brother. Ruled Gao under Moroccan dominance.

1591 - 1670

Morocco eventually proves to be unable to control such a vast empire across such great distances. A rebellion in Timbuktu almost as soon as it is taken by Morocco highlights this fact. It is Askia Muhammed in Gao who restores the local peace.

Morocco soon relinquishes control of the Western Sudan region (by 1670), allowing it to splinter into dozens of smaller kingdoms of which Gao is one of the larger. To the west, Taureg nomads control Mali until a new local power emerges in the form of the Tukulor empire in 1854, while Songhai refugees flourish in Dendi.