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Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Macedonian Dynasty (AD 867-1056)

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From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

As the western empire had declined and faded in the face of increasing barbarian incursions and settlement, the eastern empire had survived and actually thrived under the 'Dynasty of Justinian'. Justinian's empire enjoyed a 'golden age' of imperial resurgence, learning, and architectural achievement. The period afterwards saw significant destabilisation and territorial loss, in the north to Slavs and a first wave of Turkic tribal states, and in the south and east to the Islamic empire.

It was the formation of the 'Macedonian Dynasty' which saw the rocking ship fully stabilised, even if it was a far more tenuous stabilisation than in the days of Justinian. During the half a century of rule under the 'Phrygian / Amorian Dynasty' of 820-867 the Bulgars had become a significant threat, mounting incursions into northern areas of the empire as they fought off Slavic opposition to establish their own state.

Upon founding his own dynasty by murdering his predecessor, Basil I reconquered southern Italy, dealt with troublesome Cretan pirates, and gained victories against the Arabs on Cyprus, mainland Greece, and in Dalmatia.

The distracted Bulgars were swiftly converted to the Eastern Orthodox Church (a victory over the Roman Catholic Church) so that, even though Basil's successor, Leo VI, lost most of those gains, the mid-tenth century witnessed further victories in Islamic-controlled Mesopotamia.

By 1025 the empire had been restored across modern Turkey and Greece, and in the Balkans, having regained a considerable amount of lost territory. By the time of the death of Emperor Basil II 'Bulgar-Slayer' in December 1025 following a reign of half a century, Constantinople was the dominant power in the Balkans and Near East, with apparently secure frontiers along the Danube, in the Armenian highlands, and beyond the Euphrates.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Slovenska zgodovina do razsvetljenstva, Peter Štih & Simoniti Vasko (1996, in Slovenian), from An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, Peter B Golden (1992), from The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813, Cyril Mango & Roger Scott (1997), from Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit, Volume 1, Ralph-Johannes Lilie, Claudia Ludwig, Thomas Pratsch, & Ilse Rochow, from the World Heritage Encyclopaedia, from Viking-Rus Mercenaries in the Byzantine-Arab Wars of the 950s-960s: the Numismatic Evidence, Roman K Kovalev, from The Russian Primary Chronicle (Laurentian Text), Samuel Hazzard Cross & Olgerd P Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Eds and translators, Mediaeval Academy of America), from the BBC series, Mary Beard's Ultimate Rome: Empire Without Limit, presented by Mary Beard and first screened between 27 April-18 May 2016, from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), and from External Links: History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and Otto's Reign in Italy (Stories Preschool), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Turkic History, and History Extra, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Jewish Encyclopaedia, and Byzantine Empire, CWC Oman (Fisher Unwin, 1892, and available via Heritage History).)

867 - 886

First successor to the Phrygian dynasty.

869 - 870

The conversion of Bulgaria is announced at the Eighth Church Council in Constantinople, thwarting several attempts by the Catholic Church at Rome to convert the Bulgarians on their own behalf. Knyaz ('ruler, prince') Boris takes the Christian name Michael to mark his conversion.

It would be another half a century or so after the Bulgars were beaten back by Knez Vlastimir of the Serbs that Serb and Croat delegations would be received by Eastern Roman Emperor Basil I

883 - 884

The Eastern Roman empire is enjoying a resurgence of fortune in southern Italy. Under Nicephorus Phocas 'the Elder', the Roman forces slowly reconquer Calabria from 883, with attacks being concentrated on territory around Benevento.

Following the deposing of Duke Radelchis in Benevento, his successor, Aione, responds by capturing Bari, although he loses it again within a year. The eastern portion of Sicily is also recaptured.

886 - 912

Son (probably, but also claimed as Michaell III's son).

886 - 912

Younger brother and junior emperor. Emperor 912.

891 - 895

Duke Orso of Benevento is deposed after the principality is captured by Sybbaticius, the Eastern Roman strategos of Calabria. Benevento is made the capital of the thema of Langobardia until the region is taken from Roman hands by Duke Guy IV of Spoleto.

On top of the ruins of the ancient city of Brufa, which lie about twenty kilometres to the south-east of the town of Spoleto itself, the Lombards built Monteleone di Spoleto

c.900

The Alani and the Khazars join together to defeat an Eastern Roman-led coalition which is aimed against the Khazar king, Benjamin.

906 - 907

General. Rebelled. Exiled with Abbassids.

911 - 912

Extant documents begin to speak of a Varangian-Rus presence in Eastern Roman military service, starting in this period in which seven hundred Rus (Rhos) are recruited as naval troops in the unsuccessful imperial expedition against Arab-held Crete. For this service they are paid one kentenarion, equivalent to thirty-two kilograms, perhaps of gold.

Curiously, however, there seems to be no apparent numismatic record in the lands surrounding a Roman-Rus conflict of 911 to show that Rus mercenaries are able to take home their rewards. This could be proof that the Romans are maintaining a mid-fifth century ban on silver and gold being exported from the empire into barbarian lands.

912

Formerly junior emperor under Leo. Died 13 months later.

913 - 959

Son of Leo VI. Acceded aged 8. Later sole emperor.

913 - 914

Regent & patriarch, Alexander's choice. Removed by Zoe.

914

Shortly after Simeon of the First Bulgarian empire has happily accepted the title of 'tsar' from Patriarch Nicholas during a rushed peace settlement, Zoe Karbonopsina, the powerful mother of the young Constantine VII, returns to the imperial court.

The shy, young Emperor Constantine VII of the Eastern Roman empire ruled with some reluctance, preferring the peace of his studies to the hurly-burly of court life

The regents are removed, Zoe takes control of the throne, and the patrician is entirely sidelined from his office. Recognition of Simeon as 'tsar' is negated, even by removing it from some official documents.

914 - 919

Mother and forceful regent. Deposed.

c.914

The most important single source on Hungarian prehistory is the De Administrando Imperio of Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. This tenth century work makes free and critical use of earlier sources and of information which is provided by Hungarians.

It relates that the early Magyars, called at this stage Sabartoi asphaloi, live in the neighbourhood of the Khazars in a region called Levedia (named after their most senior chief).

They are closely allied to the Khazars with whom they live together for three years, and whose king gives his daughter to their chief, Lebedias. It goes on to describe the Magyar exodus which delivers them to the Carpathian basin where they found their new state.

Once established on the Pannonian plain, the Magyars plagued Europe's established kingdoms for several decades before being forced through defeat in battle at Lechfield in 955 to concentrate on establishing their own medieval kingdom in what would become Hungary

915

As the latest in a series of conflicts with the Arabs, the forces of the new Eastern Roman strategos of Bari in Italy, one Nicolaus Picingli, assemble alongside those of various other southern Italian princes in the Christian League.

This includes Landulf I of Benevento, John I and Docibilis II of Gaeta, Gregory IV and John II of Naples, Pope John X, Guaimar II of Salerno, and Alberic I of Spoleto.

The allied Eastern Roman-Lombard army fights and defeats the Fatamids at the Battle of Garigliano, a drawn-out combination of fights and a siege. The Fatamids find themselves in a worsening situation and eventually attempt to flee, only to be captured and killed. It is a militarily significant victory in the fight against Islamic advances in Italy.

916

Having rediscovered their military confidence, the Eastern Romans retake an Epirus which had been lost some time ago to Slav settlement. They will only hold it until 988, however, when it becomes a Bulgarian possession.

The mountainous landscape of all but coastal Epirus required a hardy inhabitant, and the region's remoteness may have had a bearing on its poorly recorded history in the ancient world

917

The promised war between Zoe's Constantinople and Emperor Simeon of Bulgaria now erupts. Leo Phokas 'the Elder' invades Bulgaria with naval support. They stop en route to rest, close to the River Acheloos, and also close to the port of Anchialos (today's Pomorie).

This is where Simeon finds them, and slaughters their unprepared forces. The Eastern Romans are utterly routed, with the Bulgarians chasing them to the outskirts of Constantinople. Another victory sees some of the last remaining cohesive Roman military units destroyed.

919 - 944

Regent, power behind the throne, and co-emperor (920).

919 - 924

With Zoe now removed from power and sent back to a monastery, her replacement is Romanus I Lecapenus, equally powerful and politically wily. He marries his daughter - once promised to Simeon of Bulgaria - to Constantine VII and creates himself co-emperor in 920.

Now unable to seal peace through marriage with Constantinople, Simeon instead wages a long and bloody war against the Eastern Romans.

This lead bulla seal depicting the Bulgarian 'First Empire' Tsar Peter I was reportedly found together with a hoard of solidi of Romanus I, Constantine II, and Romanus II, with the seal perhaps being tied a leather bag which contained the coins, possibly to make a Bulgarian imperial payment

Zaharije Pribisavljević in Serbia is persuaded by the imperial court to rebel in 924. He already has the support of many Bulgarians who have tired of the unceasing campaigning. An initial force of loyal Bulgarians is routed, but a larger force deposes Zaharije, while much of the leading nobility is beheaded. Simeon takes direct control of Serbia.

921 - 931

Son and co-emperor. Died.

924 - 945

Brother and co-emperor. Removed father, then deposed.

924 - 945

Brother and co-emperor. Removed father, then deposed.

952

By the time of De Administrando Imperio, which is completed in this year, the Eastern Roman authorities no longer list Sardinia as an imperial province, suggesting that they already consider it to be lost to them.

By now the transformation from imperial governor to independent petty ruler is probably well under way, and may already be complete, but nothing is known of this process until the early eleventh century when it is already over.

This map shows the approximate boundaries of each of the four giudicati of Sardinia at the time at which they first appeared into history, circa AD 1000

953

In conflict against the Eastern Roman empire in almost every year between 950 and his death, Emir Sayfud Dawla of Aleppo now wins a notable victory near Germanikeia in the Taurus Mountains (modern Kahramanmaraş in Turkey). The patrikios, Leo Maleinos, is killed, while General Bardas Phocas 'the Elder' is badly wounded.

958

The Eastern Romans under Leo Phocas, brother of future Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas, end a run of victories by Sayfud Dawla after he is ambushed and heavily defeated at Raban. Sayfud Dawla does not regain the initiative and in 962 his palace outside Aleppo is even sacked.

959 - 963

Son of Constantine II. Died mysteriously at 25.

960 - 962

Rus mercenary units are involved in a successful Eastern Roman naval expedition against Crete between 960-961, during which the amir of Crete is captured along with his large treasury and the rest of the wealth which is found on the island (including silver and gold).

The Varangian Guard of the Eastern Roman court in the tenth century were recruited from eastern-travelling Vikings who came to Greece through the lands of the Rus

It is likely that the Rus units are then transferred to the Roman expedition to Cilicia which resumes in early 962 as part of the campaign to reconquer Syria.

In that year fifty-four forts which belong to the amir of Tarsus are captured along with Anazarbus. Later in the same year, the Romans capture and raid Sayfud Dawla's capital of Aleppo (apart from its citadel). Germanikeia is taken towards the year's end.

963 - 1025

Son and senior emperor (from 976).

963 - 1025

Brother and junior emperor. Later sole emperor.

963 - 976

Mother and regent. Exiled 969-976.

963

Theophano, widow of Romanus II, serves as regent for her infant sons, Basil II and Constantine VIII (or IX if Constantine son of Romanus I Lecapenus is included in the official succession).

The citadel at Aleppo supplied Ali I with a powerful defensive position from which he hoped to expand his domains, although his seizure of Damascus proved to be short-lived

She marries the successful general, Nicephoros Phocas, five months after her husband's death. Having been disappointed in Nicephorus as a husband, Theordora has plotted with her lover, General John Zimiskes, who murders Nicephorus in his bedroom.

963 - 969

Second husband. Co-emperor. Murdered by Zimiskes.

964 - 966

Fresh from their sweeping victory on Crete in 961, the Eastern Romans launch an attack on Kalbid Sicily between 964-965. Rus mercenary units participate in the campaign which aims to capture at least part of Sicily but which is unsuccessful. They also seize more than twenty fortresses in Cilicia, including Adana, Anazarbus, al-Maṣîṣa, and Ṭarsus.

In 966, amongst other cities the Romans capture Hierapolis and, in 968, reach as far south as the fortress of Arqa, to the south of Tripoli (which is not captured). Tripoli and Damascus are forced to pay tribute.

A Fatamid dinar, minted in Egypt in 970, which expresses the dynasty's Shi'ite beliefs in opposition to the Sunni Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad

965

Cyprus is recovered from the Islamic empire, but the final Eastern Roman stronghold on Sicily falls to the Fatamids. By this time communications between Constantinople and Sardinia have already been severed, leaving that island isolated and pushing the empire out of the western Mediterranean.

967

Emperor Otto I of the Holy Roman empire repairs relationships with the republic of Venice, firstly through a marriage and then by granting a general series of commercial agreements, with the Venetian dodge's family particularly benefiting.

These agreements further strengthen Venice's ties to the west, which greatly angers the soon-to-be Eastern Roman emperor, John I Tzimisces, as Venice controls all sea trade between Western Europe and the Roman Levant in the east.

969

Antioch is recaptured from the Islamic empire by Michael Bourtzes and Peter 'the Eunuch' on behalf of Emperor Nicephoros II. The city becomes the seat of a doux who commands the forces of the local themes which are vital for holding onto this eastern border region. Aleppo is reduced to vassal status.

Otto I accepts the surrender of Berengar of Ivrea in 961 to become undisputed German emperor, shown in this early thirteenth century text called the Manuscriptum Medioalense

969

John Zimiskes and Theodore marry soon after the death of Nicephoros, and Zimiskes is raised to senior co-emperor until his sudden death in 976 (potentially having been poisoned). Basil then becomes senior emperor and recalls his mother from her exile during the reign of Zimiskes.

969 - 976

Third husband. Co-emperor. Died suddenly.

970 - 971

Having just defeated the Bulgarians again (in 969), Grand Prince Sviatoslav of Kyiv finally breaks the long peace between the Rus and the Eastern Romans which had been encouraged and supported by his late mother. He launches an invasion of the lower Danube in 970 and engages the Roman armies there in major battles between then and 971. Unfortunately for him, the forces of Emperor John Tzimisces are stronger than his.

972 - 977

In the same year in which John Zimiskes grants autonomy to Athos, a Sunni Turk named Alp Takin drives the Fatamids out of Damascus and holds it for five years, negotiating with the Eastern Romans to prevent them from sweeping in to take over. In 977, Fatamid Caliph al-Aziz manages to regain control and tame the dissident Sunnis.

Eastern Roman Emperor John I Zimiskes returns in glory to Constantinople, with the captured Preslav Icon and Tsar Boris II of Bulgaria (second from right)

976

The Eastern Romans are subjected to a major attack by the Cometopuli, with the Macedonian town of Serres being besieged. North-eastern Bulgaria is recaptured by the cometopuli, in a notable territorial gain for the sons of the counts.

Basil II is also fighting a rebellion in the east which is led by a general called Bardas Skleros. So he resorts to subterfuge with his Bulgarian adversaries by negotiating with one of their leaders alone. When the other discovers the deceit, the first is executed along with most of his family.

976 - 979

Rebelled in Asia Minor. Exiled with Abbassids.

988

Bulgaria takes the region of Epirus from the empire, along with Thrace and, soon after, the Serb province of Duklja. Simultaneously, Basil is rocked by the news that exiled rebel Bardas Phokas 'the Younger' has rebelled again, with initial support from the equally disgraced Bardas Skleros. Much of Asia Minor falls to him, and his forces are approaching the Dardanelles.

In Eastern Roman Emperor Basil II the Bulgarians found themselves an implacable, unrelenting enemy who would not give up until their state had been destroyed

988 - 989

Rebelled in Asia Minor. Died in battle of natural causes.

988 - 989

Fortuitously, around the same time in 988, Grand Prince Vladimir I of the Kievan Rus dispatches four or six thousand (sources vary) Varangians to Constantinople at the request of the emperor. This is the first resumption of the supply of Varangian-Rus troops since Grand Prince Sviatoslav's attack of 970-971.

With this supply of men Basil is able to establish the Varangian Guard. In effect, the guard is the formalisation of the practice of using Varangians which goes back at least to 911. They instantly prove their worth by helping to defeat Bardas Phokas in 989, although the rebel leader himself is killed by a seizure just as he is attacking Basil's front line in battle.

992

Basil II agrees the first important commercial treaty with Venice, which gives their merchants an advantage in a trade market with is strongly supported by Europe's monarchs.

1000

Basil annexes the Armenian principality of Taik following several pleas by David of Taik for protection against marauding Seljuq tribesmen. The move offers the principality direct Eastern Roman protection.

The (First) Bulgarian empire had controlled a great swathe of the Balkans during its existence, but its termination in 971 resulted in only its western territories remaining independent (within the dashed line), governed by the cometopuli (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1014

Worn down by incessant Eastern Roman raiding every year, Tsar Samuel builds a long wooden defensive wall across their favoured line of advance through the Strumitsa river valley. At first the defence proves to be highly successful, but the Romans eventually find a way around. The main Bulgarian army is surprised and defeated.

Emperor Basil II gains the epithet 'Bulgar Slayer' when he captures and blinds most of the fifteen thousand-strong army on 29 July. The defeat fatally weakens the Bulgar state, and Samuel too. He reputedly suffers a heart attack when he sees his mutilated army return home.

1018

Tsar Ivan Vladislav is killed while attacking Eastern Romans during the Battle of Dyrrhachium in 1018 (now Durrës in Albania). Exhausted by the war and lacking a suitable successor, his widow, Maria, and a good many Bulgarian regional governors surrender to Basil II who then annexes Bulgaria to the empire.

Pope Sylvester II - happy to recognise a Bulgarian emperor if it meant scoring a success over the Orthodox Church - began the process of reintroducing from the Islamic empire much of that which had been lost since the fall of the Roman empire

1021 - 1022

Two further Armenian principalities are absorbed into the empire. In 1021 the ruler of Vaspurakan cedes his lands to Basil because he is unable to withstand the Seljuq Turkmen incursions.

Sempad of Ani hands over his principality to the emperor in 1022 on condition that he is allowed to continue to rule until his death. He is subsequently defeated outright by the Eastern Romans in 1045.

1025 - 1028

Former co-emperor. Now sole ruler.

1028 - 1050

Daughter and heir, deferred to Romanus. Died.

1028 - 1034

Married Zoë before being made emperor. Weak.

1034 - 1041

Paphlagonian origins. Zoë's lover, then husband.

1035

Sons of Tancred de Hauteville of the Cherbourg peninsula, the Hauteville brothers arrive in southern Italy from Normandy. They have been enticed there after receiving requests for help from fellow Norman, Rainulf Drengot, count of Aversa.

Norman conquests in southern Italy started relatively small (with Lecce shown here being taken by 1055) but they led to the creation of a single kingdom by the mid-twelfth century

Soon after becoming involved with them, Guaimar IV of Salerno is required to send troops to support an Eastern Roman expedition under General Giorgio Maniace. Guaimar sends a cohort of Lombards and Normans, prominent amongst whom is William de Hauteville who, in Sicily, wins the epithet 'Iron Arm'.

1041 - 1042

Nephew. Emperor for 4 months. Fled and deposed.

1042 - 1050

Joint empress with her sister, Zoë.

1042

Zoë marries yet again, principally to ensure that her selection is made emperor. In effect she 'confers the diadem' on Constantine IX who immediately assumes imperial responsibilities. Her death in 1050 makes Constantine the unquestioned ruler, while Theodora retires to a monastery.

By the eighth century, Roman Beneventum had become early medieval Benevento, which was acclaimed as the new Pavia following the fall of the Lombard kingdom

1042 - 1050

Husband of Zoë and emperor.

1050 - 1055

Sole emperor following Zoë's death.

1054

The patriarch of Constantinople, Michael I Cærularius, refuses to acknowledge the primacy of the apostolic successor to Peter. Pope Leo IX sends a legatine mission under Cardinal Humbert to Constantinople to discuss the church in the troublesome south of Italy, but Humbert promptly excommunicates the patriarch. In return the patriarch excommunicates Humbert.

This point is officially recognised as the start of the schism between the Eastern (Orthodox) Church and the Western (Catholic) Church based respectively at the Eastern Roman capital of Constantinople and in Rome.

This romantic painting shows the amphitheatre of the Italian city of Tusculum, native territory of the influential counts of Tusculum who dominated the early post-Frankish Roman civil authority

1055 - 1056

Returned from monastery as empress. Died.

1056

The seventy-four year-old Empress Theodora is on the throne for sixteen months before she suffers a sudden illness from which she is unable to recover. As the last of the Macedonian dynasty, she is succeeded by her chosen replacement, the aged administrator and former conspirator for imperial power, Michael Bringas. He becomes the 'Non-Dynastic' ruler, Michael VI.