European Kingdoms

Galacia / Galatia (Gauls / Belgae?)
Incorporating the Ambitouti, Tectosages, Teutobodiaci, Tolistoboges, Trocmes, & Voturi

Indo-Europeans - Celtic Tribes (Intro) Anatolian Tribes Balkans Tribes Baltic Tribes Celtic Tribes Germanic Tribes Italic Tribes Indo-Iranian/Aryan Tribes Slavic Tribes Tocharians (Intro)

In general terms, the Romans coined the name 'Gaul' to describe the Celtic tribes of what is now central, northern, and eastern France. The Gauls were divided from the Belgae to the north by the Marne and the Seine, and from the Aquitani to the south by the River Garonne, while also extending into Switzerland, northern Italy, and along the Danube (see feature link for a discussion of the origins of the Celtic name).

Galatia was a Celtic kingdom in Anatolia (Asia Minor, modern Turkey), founded in the third century BC. A massive band of Celts formed into a loose confederation and migrated through the Balkans into Thrace, causing chaos within the Macedonian kingdom before they moved on to enter Anatolia.

There they were finally defeated by the Attalid king of Pergamon, following which they generally retreated into the territory of ancient Phrygia in the western centre of Anatolia to settle a swathe of land which became known by their collective name, Galatia, meaning 'land of the Gauls'.

That name, 'Galatia' (with the 't' in that form and the 'c' in Galacia being interchangeable), is a form of the most ancient name of the Celts as it is understood today (see feature link for a discussion of the origins of the Celtic name).

That original name was reported variously as beginning with a 'g' or 'k' sound, followed by an 'a' or 'e', followed always by an 'l', and followed either by a vowel or without one, and finally by a 'd' or 't'. So the name would have been 'Kelt', 'Caled' (as in the Caledonians of Pictland), 'Galicia' (in Central Europe) or, in this case, 'Galat', all mean the same thing, 'Celt'.

Given the consonant shift proposed for the Belgae, then 'Belgae' would indicate that its 'b' replaced an older (?) form of a 'w' sound. This supplies 'Welgae' as a possible older form of Belgae, and rather astonishingly that 'wel-' sounds incredibly similar to the name Germanic groups used for Celts! So the possibility is raised that the original ethnic name was 'Wel' and, while the Belgae were in Northern Europe, this mutated into 'vel' and then 'bel'. In the west and south - Gaulish lands - the 'w' of 'wel' acquired a hard 'k' or 'g' in front of it, to form 'kwel' or 'gwel', therefore giving rise to words such as 'celtae' and 'galati'.

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(Information by Peter Kessler and Edward Dawson, with additional information from The Oxford History of England: Roman Britain, Peter Salway, from The La Tene Celtic Belgae Tribes in England: Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R-U152 - Hypothesis C, David K Faux, from Res Gestae, Ammianus Marcellinus, from Commentarii in Epistulam ad Galatas II, 3 = Patrologia Latina 26, 357, St Jerome, from Guide for Greece, Pausanias, from A Genetic Signal of Central European Celtic Ancestry, David K Faux, from Celts and the Classical World, David Rankin, from The Civilisation of the East, Fritz Hommel (Translated by J H Loewe, Elibron Classic Series, 2005), from Europe Before History, Kristian Kristiansen, from The History of Rome, Volume 1, Titus Livius, translated by Rev Canon Roberts, from the Encyclopaedia of European Peoples, Carl Waldman & Catherine Mason, from Roman History, Cassius Dio, from Geography, Strabo, translated by H C Hamilton Esq & W Falconer, M A, Ed (George Bell & Sons, London, 1903), from The Celtic Encyclopaedia, Harry Mountain, from Geography, Ptolemy, from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), and from External Links: The Works of Julius Caesar: Gallic Wars, and Journal of Celtic Studies in Eastern Europe and Asia-Minor, and Proto-Celtic Word List (PDF), and The Natural History, Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed), and Jones' Celtic Encyclopaedia, and L'Arbre Celtique (The Celtic Tree, in French), and Geography, Strabo (H C Hamilton & W Falconer, London, 1903, Perseus Online Edition).)

c.300 BC

The last stages of Hallstatt culture see Celts involved in a great expansion into southern and Eastern Europe. Tribes infiltrate across the Danube to enter land on the southern edge of the eastern Alps, in the form of the Latovici, Serapili, Sereti, and Taurisci.

The modern southern Austrian region of Carinthia marked the upper edge of the Adriatic hinterland which was first occupied by Celts towards the end of the fourth century BC, and it is from these early arrivals that the Galatians and Scordisci seem to have sprung

The native communities in the hinterland of the Adriatic between Carinthia and Carniola are relatively rapidly assimilated by the Celtic newcomers, soon losing their identity completely. The migration turns into a powerful juggernaut as it enters the Balkans to come up against the Thracian and Greek kingdoms. It is unclear whether later La Tène elements of Celtic culture are also involved, but it is entirely possible.

fl 281 BC

Confederation leader who entered Thrace.

c.282 - 281 BC

Gauls who are settled in Pannonia begin a series of campaigns southwards towards Thrace under the leadership of Cambaules. The first two campaigns see Cambaules and his leading veterans divide their followers.

The first group is sent under Cerethrius against the Thracians and Triballi, while the second is sent under Brennus and Acichorius against Paeonia, and the third is under Bolgios against the Macedonians and Illyrians.

This silver tetradrachm was issued by Lysimachus, and shows the deified head of Alexander 'the Great' on the obverse, with the goddess Athena on the reverse

281 - 277? BC

Confederation leader.

281 - 277 BC

Tolistoboges chief (not Brennus of the Senones)? Died 277 BC.

281 - ? BC

Confederation leader.

281 - ? BC

Confederation leader.

279 BC

Despite ruling both the Lysimachian empire and Macedonia, and having his main rival, the Antigonid King Antigonus II Gonatas bottled up in his own capital, Ptolemy II Ceraunus is killed in the invasion of Greece by the contingent under Bolgios. The kingdom is plunged into anarchy as the Celts invade further into Greece, and only the Aetolians seem to be able to take the lead in defending Greek territory.

278 - 277 BC

Brennus and Acichorius lead the third campaign by the Celts, although this is eventually defeated by a force led by the Aetolians. Following victory at Thermopylae, they advance to Delphi in 278 BC where they are routed by the Greek army, and then suffer a crushing defeat (under Cerethrius) at the hands of the Antigonid King Antigonus II in 277 BC.

The Gauls moved into an Anatolian landscape which was littered with remnants of previous kingdoms, notably that of Arzawa, which formerly dominated the Phrygian lands

With Brennus dead, they retreat from Greece and pass through Thrace to enter into Anatolia, although a small contingent (of around twenty thousand, half of whom are warriors) under the leadership of Liutarius and Leonnarius already seems to have made the journey in 278 BC, with the rest merely following in their wake along a now-established route.

These Celts in Anatolia (centred on lands which are taken from Phrygia) form tribal regions which are based around each of the three main constituents of the confederation. The Tectosages base themselves at Ancyra (modern Ankara, with their leaders shown below in black).

The Tolistoboges settle at Gordion (to the west of Ankara, shown in green), and the Trocmes concentrate themselves at Tauion (Tavium, southern Paphlagonia, with leaders shown in red), all in Anatolia. A separate kingdom is established in Thrace, at the city of Tilis (shown in light grey).

The far larger remnant of Gauls who remain in the Balkans join together to form a confederation which finally settles at the junction of the rivers Savus and Danube in the Balkans.

Like the Kaskans before them, Paphlagonians struggled to survive in the somewhat tough conditions of the Black Sea's southern coast

They adopt a name which highlights their acceptance of this territory as their new home, taking the mountain's name itself as the 'people of the Scord' - the Scordisci. They probably pick up elements of many of the local peoples along the way, Dacians, Illyrians, and Thracians.

From there they raid into Macedonia, weakening the kingdom and later forcing a good many of the Roman governors there to campaign against them during the late second and early first centuries BC.

278 - ? BC

Galatian kingdom of the Tectosages.

278 - ? BC

Co-ruler.

c.278 BC

Outside of Anatolia, the westernmost portion of Galatia is a Celtic kingdom which is established at Tilis (or Tylis, Tyle). This city in eastern Thrace and its Celtic occupiers are both mentioned by Polybius in relation to Commontorios setting up his own kingdom in the wake of the Celtic rampage through the Balkans.

The city of Tilis is located near the eastern edge of the Haemus (Balkan) mountains in what is now eastern Bulgaria (the modern Bulgarian village of Tulovo in Stara Zagora province now occupies the site). Its kings are shown below in grey text to differentiate them from core Galatian leaders.

The ancient kingdom of Tilis was formed in eastern Thrace, today's Tulovo in Bulgaria, in a river valley which was surrounded by mountains

c.278 - c.250 BC

Galatian kingdom of Tilis (eastern Thrace).

275 BC

The Galatians seem to be expanding the territory they command, presenting a growing threat to the eastern kingdoms in Anatolia. The Seleucid king in Syria, Antiochus I, attacks the Galatians from the east. Defeating them at the Battle of the Elephants, he pushes back their borders and, allegedly, gains the title 'soter' (meaning 'saviour') thanks to his victory.

273 BC

The Celts invade Thrace again, destroying the Thracian kingdom and forcing the Greek aristocracy to escape to the colonies bordering the Black Sea. The kingdom of Galatia now covers territory from the lower Balkans to Anatolia.

Its victorious creators settle down to a life which is fairly traditional, although they have adopted an internal organisation which is much enhanced, with separate judges and military commanders who are all subject to the regional tetrarch. Some Celts at least learn to read Greek, although whether any records are kept by the Celts themselves in any language, Greek or otherwise, is doubtful.

Pergamon rose to prominence during the years of division in the Greek empire following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC when his empire was divided among his generals - now it worked in tandem with Cappadocia

fl 235 BC

Galatian kingdom of Tilis (eastern Thrace).

230 BC

The city of Pergamon has been ruled as an Hellenic domain of the Lysimachian empire (during the lifetime of Satrap Philetaerus), with the city being turned into a fortress to house many of the Lysimachian riches. It is only with the success now of Attalus against the Galatian Celts that an independent kingdom is proclaimed in 230 BC, although it still remains within Greece's sphere of influence.

? - c.218 BC

Galatian kingdom of Tilis (eastern Thrace).

214 BC

The Thracians eject the Celtic kingdom of Galatia from Greece and fully restore Thracian rule. Only the Celtic kingdom at Tilis in eastern Thrace remains in Celtic hands. The early Galatian kingdom (or rather, confederation) has over-extended itself by claiming too much territory. Now it faces pressure from east and west and its borders contract.

The treasures of the Odrysian kingdom in Thrace would in part have been inherited by the Odrissae people following the apparent break-up of the kingdom

212 BC

The Celtic kingdom which is based at the city of Tilis (or Tylis) in eastern Thrace is attacked by Pleuratus, would-be king of Thrace who may reign in opposition to the already-established Seuthes IV. The kingdom is apparently destroyed by the action, as is the city itself.

c.200 BC

By now Galatia has been settled for almost a century around the River Halys and the Phrygian plain - the poorest parts of Anatolia. According to Pliny the Elder it lies 'above' Phrygia and includes the greater part of the territory which had been taken from that province, along with its former capital at Gordion (Gordium).

The Gauls of these parts are called the Tolistobogi (Tolistoboges), the Voturi and the Ambitouti. The latter seem to be divisions of the Tolistoboges, never apparently having been mentioned in history at any time prior to this appearance.

Turkey's Çanakkale Archaeological Museum contains the Altıkulaç Sarcophagus which depicts a Phrygian horseman of the early fourth century BC attacking a floored Greek psiloi (skirmisher)

The Gauls of Maeonia and Paphlagonia are called the Trocmi (Trocmes). Cappadocia stretches along to the north-west of Galatia, with its most fertile regions being in the possession of the Tectosages and Teutobodiaci. The latter is another new group, or division, presumably from the main host of Tectosages.

All of these Gauls are divided into people and tetrarchies, totalling one hundred and ninety-five in all. Each tribe is split into four groups, which effectively form a total of twelve sub-tribes (which accounts for the new names appearing above).

The Tectosages are centred on Ancyra (modern Ankara), while the Trocmi are at Tavium, and the Tolistobogi have Pessinius, and all of them are gradually absorbing the native population into their ranks.

Ancient sources disagree about whether the Gauls found these towns or have merely taken them out of the hands of the previous owners. Pausanias for one makes it clear that Ancyra had been a Phrygian settlement before the Celts arrived, so the truth seems to depend upon each writer's level of knowledge about the region.

A mosaic dated to about AD 565 in the Eastern Roman style shows the Magi (named as Balthassar, Melchor, and Caspar) in Persian attire with so-called Phrygian caps (possibly the same thing as the loose caps which Herodotus called 'tiaras')

192 - 191 BC

Antiochus III 'the Great' of Seleucid Syria invades Greece, and is elected commander-in-chief of the Aetolian League. He declares himself to be the 'champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination', and wages war against the Roman republic in mainland Greece.

Ultimately he is defeated by Roman troops under the command of Manius Acilius Glabrio at Thermopylae in 191 BC, which forces him to withdraw to Asia Minor. Rome is subsequently drawn into Asia as an ally of Pergamon where it opposes the armies of Antiochus and his allies, the Galatian Celts.

Antiochus appears to have enlisted the support of the Galatians through a mixture of threats and promises, and he makes extensive use of Celtic troops.

190 - 189 BC

Antiochus and Rome fight each other at the Battle of Magnesia ad Sipylum in 190 BC. The Seleucids rely heavily on the Galatians, especially their cavalry, but the Romans under Scipio Asiaticus win a resounding victory at Magnesia, ending the war.

Ptolemy Euergetes increased Egyptian imperial borders at the expense of Seleucid Syria, something which few of his successors were ever able to manage, which also allowed Cappadocia some extra freedoms

The newly appointed commander of Roman forces in Asia Minor (Anatolia) is Gnaeus Manlius Vulso. He ensures that the entire region knows of Rome's arrival by looting, robbing, and extorting plunder from the local population, and destroying those who resist (so says Livy).

Even worse, he views the Galatian Celts as a mongrel race and is determined to exterminate them, despite receiving no such instructions from Rome. He exhibits an extreme degree of the general Roman dislike of Celts due to their sack of Rome under Brennus of the Senones in 387 BC.

Vulso begins his genocidal campaign when he crosses the River Sangarius, arriving at the Galatian settlement of Gordion, only to find that it has been abandoned by its inhabitants. Envoys arrive from a chieftain called Eposognatus, the only one not to take up arms against Rome in the recent war, while the Tolistoboges tribe abandons its villages and farms and heads towards the defendable site of Mount Olympus.

Mount Olympus (or Olympos) in Phrygia was the scene of one of Rome's most unforgivable atrocities - the massacre of as many as forty thousand Gauls

Unfortunately Vulso is not to be stopped by mere defences. The site is taken by force, with its defenders being massacred, men woman and children alike.

fl c.189 BC

Tetrarch of the Tolistoboges.

fl c.189 BC

Tetrarch of the Tolistoboges. At Mount Olympus.

189 BC

Roman sources agree that forty thousand prisoners are taken, while the number of dead varies between ten and forty thousand, the higher figure shocking many Romans. Plutarch recounts a story about one of the few survivors: Chiomara (Χιομάρα), wife of the chieftain Ortiagon who himself has managed to escape capture.

Chiomara is captured and raped by a Roman centurion, who then offers her back to her relatives for a ransom. Keeping the arrangement from his men, the centurion collects the gold at a pre-agreed location at night.

He is saying his rather over-affectionate goodbyes to Chiomara when she signals to the Gaul who brought the gold - and he promptly decapitates the centurion. Chiomara returns to her husband's side in the safety of the Tectosages camp and presents the Roman's head to him as her trophy.

Rome's republic was usually headed by two consuls and the Senate, but on a very few occasions the post was replaced, usually by military appointments

Other Galatians are not so lucky. One chieftain commits suicide after sending his wife on her way before him, an act which is later commemorated on a monument which had previously been erected in 227 BC at Pergamon by Attalus I Soter to commemorate his own victory over the Galatians.

Vulso's next target are the Tectosages. Reaching Ancyra, he finds the Galatians encamped sixteen kilometres away. He attacks a somewhat fragile Gaulish defence which quickly crumbles in the centre, unnerved probably by events at Mount Olympus.

The subsequent pursuit sees around eight thousand men killed, with little attempt by the Gauls to fight. However, the Gauls at Ancyra have delayed the Romans long enough so that the remnants of the Trocmes and Tectosages have been able to cross the Halys, escaping the grasp of Vulso's murderous campaign.

Perhaps the most notable fact is that the Galatian numbers have increased so markedly from the entry into Anatolia of just twenty thousand men, women, and children in 278/277 BC. Doubtless a large number of this expanded population is made up of absorbed natives, but the Gauls have clearly been thriving. Until now.

Roman military tactics may have owed something to the Samnites, with this efficient and seasoned warrior force matching the Romans and bettering them in the fourth century BC

100s? BC

The tragedy (and revenge) of Camma is told by Plutarch, On the Bravery of Woman. Whilst being undated, it clearly tells a story of the Galatians when they are independent, but they are also clearly sophisticated and at least semi-civilised, so the story must date from the later period of Galatian independence, most probably the late second century BC or during the first century BC.

Camma is born a princess of the Tolistoboges and she marries someone equal to her station, a tetrarch named Sinatus, one of the most powerful men in Galatia. She attains the highest position available to a woman, high priestess of the 'Mother Goddess' (Cybele-Artemis).

Her husband's cousin, another tetrarch called Sinorix, becomes so obsessed with her that he murders his rival and immediately attempts to woo Camma. Apparently persuaded by his efforts to persuade her family to support him, a wedding is soon arranged at the temple of the mother goddess.

Gaulish warriors were characterised by their longswords and decorated shields, with many even fighting naked, but Rome's military machine was tougher and better resourced

Instead of giving herself willingly to her new husband, Camma poisons them both, drinking the liquid herself to disguise her intent. Sinorix dies slowly and in agony, but Camma refuses to yield to death until she has heard the news that her husband's murderer has preceded her.

fl 100s? BC

Tetrarch of the Tolistoboges?

fl 100s? BC

Tetrarch of the Tolistoboges?

1st century BC

The Galatians begin to mint their own coins in the first century BC. Perhaps this is a little late considering the level of civilisation which surrounds them - primarily Phrygian and Hellenic - but coin production amongst Gauls farther west begins relatively late as well. Galatian coins largely reflect regional influences and are mostly bronze issues, perhaps limited by Roman domination.

86 - 85 BC

Staunch enemies of Rome since the massacres of Vulso in 189 BC, the Galatians are now a powerful regional force. They have been resisting Rome's expansion in Asia Minor, siding with Mithradates 'the Great' of Pontus in his matching endeavours, along with the Bastarnae and Scordisci.

A tetradrachm issued by Mithradates VI of Pontus and Bithynia around 86-85 BC, towards the end of his dominance in Anatolia and the beginning of true Roman dominance

Defeat for the combined forces at the Battle of Chaeornea in 86 BC causes Mithradates to begin to suspect his allies of treachery. This increasing paranoia culminates in a bloody pogrom in which Galatian leaders are massacred at a banquet.

The murder provokes a swift and brutal backlash from the Gauls. One of the few surviving leaders, Deiotarus, raises an army, expels Mithradates and his garrisons, and drives them out of Galatia. Gaulish revenge subsequently escalates beyond Galatia, with Pontic garrisons in Phrygia and Cilica being attacked.

Roman General Lucullus had been on the verge of suspending the war due to a lack of supplies for his army, but Galatian support has solved the problem. Now Lucullus advances with thirty thousand Galatians following in his train, successfully terminating the First Mithridatic War in 85 BC.

The River Seihan (or Seyhan) runs into the eastern Mediterranean at Adana, providing vital irrigation in a tough, mountainous environment in Anatolia's Cilicia

fl 86 - 40 BC

Tolistoboges tetrarch. Roman-supported 'King of Galatia'.

85 - 70s BC

For his help in the Mithridatic conflict, Deiotarus receives the title 'king', and his territory is greatly extended by the addition of Armenia Minor. Strabo points out that Deiotarus then maintains two main fortresses, one at Blucium which is his royal residence, and one at Peium which is used as his treasury.

Pompey subsequently and effectively divides Galatia along its principal lines, with emphasis on the two tetrarchs who have been striking their own coins, Deiotarus of the Tolistoboges and Brogitarus of the Trocmes.

69 BC

General Lucullus continues his campaigning by fighting Tigranes 'the Great' of Armenia at the River Taurus, again supported by Galatian cavalry.

62 - 44 BC

Trocmes tetrarch. Son-in-law of Deiotarus. 'King of Galatia'.

c.50s - 40s BC

Brogitarius and his son, Amintas, issue the only known silver Galatian coins. Gold coins bearing Amintas' name are now thought to be forgeries, although by far the majority of Galatian coins to have been discovered are issued in his name.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla was the victor in Rome's first full-scale civil war (88-82 BC), after which he became dictator of the Roman republic, thereby laying out a path which others could follow in the same century

fl 48 BC

Trocmes tetrarch. Son of Mithradates VI of Pontus.

47 BC

Julius Caesar has already realised the usefulness of Mithradates of Pergamon, son of Mithradates VI of Pontus by his Galatian wife (a cousin of Deiotarus Philoromaeus, tetrarch of the Tolistoboges).

Following victory at Zela, Caesar commands him to attack and assume control of the Bosporan kingdom. This he does, no doubt with the support of Roman troops. Records refer to him both as Mithradates I and Mithradates II of the Bosporan kingdom.

c.40 - 25 BC

Son of Brogitarius. Trocmes tetrarch. 'King of Galatia'.

37 BC

Amintas already possesses Lycaonia, where Strabo relates that he 'maintained more than three hundred flocks'. The territory of Derbe in Lycaonia is added to this, allegedly through the murder of its prince, Antipater of Derbe, friend of Cicero (with the deed being alleged by Cicero himself).

The conquest of the arid, mountainous Homonada region and the killing of its chieftain by Amintas led directly to the end of Galatian independence

Isaura and Cappadocia are added as gifts from Rome. With Deiotarus now deceased, Amintas is made king of Cappadocia in 37 BC as a client ruler of Mark Anthony, and he subsequently bases himself in Pamphylia, which remains a possession only during his lifetime.

31 - 25 BC

Probably wisely, Amintas deserts Mark Antony to join Octavian just before the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, according to Plutarch in Parallel Lives. Whilst gradually expanding his territories, Amyntas has conquered the Homonada region, killing the local chieftain to achieve this aim.

However, the death is avenged by his widow, and Amintas is killed in an ambush in 25 BC. With the last Roman-supported Galatian client king now dead, Galatia's client status is ended and it becomes a Roman province.

The site of Caesar's assassination in 44 BC was not the steps of the senate building but Largo di Torre Argentina, today a sunken archaeological complex which contains the remains of four republican-era temples and the rear wall of the curia of Pompey

c.AD 50s

The Galatians may be on their way to becoming eastern Romans, but they have not entirely forgotten their Gaulish roots. They initially receive St Paul as an angel from heaven but perhaps fail fully to understand the Early Christian message. Acts (xiii-xiv) indicates that they have to be restrained at Lystra from sacrificing to St Paul, and shortly afterwards they stone the 'Angel of God', and leave him for dead.

AD 63

Polemon II of Pontus is persuaded to abdicate the throne by Roman Emperor Nero, and Pontus becomes part of the Roman province of Galatia. As a satellite state of Pontus, the Georgian kingdom of Kolkis is also drawn into the Galatian province.

386/387

Remarkably, the Treveri still exist as a recognisable group of Celts. The best-known piece of evidence for late Gaulish is found in St Jerome's (331-420) commentary on St Paul's letter to the Galatians, written in the year 386/387 (the calculation is somewhat imprecise).

The thick forest of the Ardennes formed part of the Treveri homeland when they arrived there in the early or mid-second century BC

In it he says that the language of the Treveri in the Belgica is similar to that of the Galatians. Apart from the Greek language, which is spoken throughout the entire east of the empire, the Galatians have their own language which is almost the same as that of the Treveri.

Whilst this serves to prove the continued existence of the Galatian Celts themselves, four hundred years after their incorporation into the Roman empire, it also confirms suspected links between Galatians and Belgae, perhaps dating back before the Belgae had fully completed their settlement in the Low Countries.