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Near East Kingdoms

Ancient Mesopotamia

 

Eshnunna (City State) (Northern Mesopotamia)

FeatureIn southern Mesopotamia the city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation developed out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent, a period which had seen Neolithic Farmer practices spread far and wide across the Near East and beyond.

As irrigation improved so the more southerly reaches of the Euphrates could at last be occupied by humans and their animals, with permanent settlements arising from the sixth millennium BC. Initially these were pastoralist settlements, but soon farming villages appeared and they gradually grew and improved. At the same time, northern Mesopotamia experienced its own burgeoning development processes, largely starting under the Hassuna culture.

These processes took longer here than they did in the south, in what is now northern Iraq, the western edge of Iran, the south-eastern corner of Turkey, and the eastern wedge of Syria. An urban lifestyle only really appeared in the third millennium BC, thanks in part to such influences being imposed during Sumerian empire-building periods. Archaeology has uncovered a wealth of detail about settlements in this region, but many more sites remain to be examined.

The minor city of Eshnunna (the modern archaeological mound of Tell Asmar) was situated in the Diyala Valley to the north-east of Sumer itself, but it was still very much a part of Sumerian culture and civilisation. Occupied from circa 2900 BC, it was never a significant power during Sumerian times but, in the period of Ur's 'Third Dynasty' towards the end of the third millennium BC, it was a well-attested city and the capital of one of Ur's provinces with the same name.

As Ur headed towards collapse, the city (which is not mentioned in the Sumerian king list) gained an independent dynasty of its own, as did many other of Ur's former subject cities. Its kings, some of whom bore Elamite names, may even have been united with early Assyria for a time, and were a threat to later Babylonian hegemony.

Although information on the kingdom is sparse, a historical framework for Amorite Eshnunna can be pieced together from building inscriptions, year dates, letters, and seal inscriptions both from Eshnunna and elsewhere. The history of the city of Nuzi is closely interrelated with that of the nearby towns of Eshnunna and Khafajah. There were apparently twenty-eight kings for Eshnunna between 2065-1762 BC, although six are missing from this list.

Sumerians

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Samuel Noah Kramer ('List 1' of Sumerian rulers, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1963), from First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Peter Bellwood (Second Ed, Wiley-Blackwell, 2022), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from The First Empires, J N Postgate (Oxford 1977), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Ancient History: A Theory About Ancient Times, L C Gerts (List 4 of Sumerian rulers, Chapter 12: The Sumerian king list, 2002), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), from The Age of the God-Kings, Kit van Tulleken (Ed, Time Life Books, Amsterdam 1987), and from External Links: Nuzi (Alchetron), and Ancient Worlds, and The Sumerian Kings List, J A Black, G Cunningham, E Fluckiger-Hawker, E Robson, & G Zólyomi ('List 2' of Sumerian rulers, available via the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford, 1998), and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love ('List 3' of Sumerian rulers at Sarissa.org), and Images from History (University of Alabama), and The Ancient Near East, A Life, Piotr Michalowski & Gary Beckman (Orientalia lovaniensia Analecta 220, 2012, and available to download as a PDF), and Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-abum and Sumu-la-El, Rients de Boer (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol 70, 2018, and available to read via JSTOR), and Amorites in the early Old Babylonian Period, R de Boer (Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands, doctoral thesis which is available to download as a PDF (author's corrected version)).)

c.2900 - 2750 BC

The Jemdet Nasr period fades around 2900 BC in favour of a new, outward-looking 'Early Dynastic' period. True writing now blossoms as it moves closer to spoken Sumerian, archives explode with mercantile records and administrative acts, and the first kings begin to appear as leading city figures take on more duties and increasing power, ostensibly as deputies of the gods themselves.

Nippur becomes the focus of Sumer's unified cult practices. This unique status lasts until the eighteenth century BC which witnesses the rise of Babylon. Seals mention it frequently, even when they are found in small or obscure Sumerian cities such as Abu Salabikh, Arina, Kesh, Urum, and Zabalam.

Other small cities emerge at this time, such as Eshnunna. No kings are known for the city at this time, suggesting it is a satellite colony rather than an independent creation.

c.2030s BC

Shu-Sin of Ur gives a daughter in marriage to the Elamite prince of Anshan, but the majority of his reign oversees continued regional decline. Amorites continue to migrate into the east and north of Ur's territory, essentially removing them from Ur's bureaucratic oversight without even fighting a pitched battle.

In increasing desperation at the unmanaged immigration and potential spread of revolt, Shu-Sin orders a wall to be built which stretches two hundred and seventy-four kilometres. It is frequently attacked.

fl c.2030 BC

Ituria

Governor? under Ur.

Ituria, a city leader, builds a temple for his divine overlord, Shu-Sin of Ur. Soon afterwards a palace is attached to this.

fl c.2026 BC

Shu-ilija / Ilshu-Ilia

Son. Claimed the independent kingship of the city.

c.2026 BC

Eshnunna breaks away from the control of Ur during the second year of Ibbi-Sin's reign. Former governor and now king, Shu-ilija, maintains good relationships with Ishbi-Erra of Isin as does his successor.

However, the succeeding rulers drop the title of 'king' to use the lesser one of 'énsi' (governor) or 'ishshakum' (general) insisting that the kingship of the state belongs to the city's god, Tishpak.

Eshnunna figurines
Figurines from Eshnunna, probably from the period around 2000 BC

c.2013 BC

Kazallu is conquered by Isin. Eshnunna receives Isin's help in battle against Subartu.

fl c.2010 BC

Nurahum / Nur-Akhum

Received help from Isin to win a battle against Subartu.

Kirikiri

Bore an Elamite name.

Bilalama

Bore an Elamite name.

Eshnunna appears to maintain close contacts with Elam, although it seems not to be subject to any conquest by the Elamites.

Ishar-Ramashshu

fl to c.1940 BC

Usurawassu / Usur-Awasu

The city is sacked during the time of Usurawassu, possibly by Anum-muttabbil of Der, and may temporarily be subject to that city. Little is known about the subsequent nine rulers.

Azuzum

Urninmar / Ur-Ninmar / Ur-Ninkimara

c.1920? BC

Isin suddenly and rapidly begins to decline. The precise events are not known but, around this time, Gungunum, Isin's governor of the province of Lagash (and apparently based at Larsa), seizes Ur. This move cuts Isin's vital trade route, economically crippling the city.

Perhaps not coincidentally, the local Kütepe period civilisation (2000-1700 BC) which is based at Kanesh in Anatolia is at its height between 1950-1800 BC, which accounts for the Karum-Kanesh level II archaeological period.

Urningishzida / Ur-Ningizzidda

fl c.1900? BC

Ipiqadad I / Ibiq-Adad I

Overlord of Abdi-Erah (below).

fl c.1900? BC

Abdi-Erah

Barely known, perhaps a minor Diyala region ruler.

Abdi-Erah is (probably) not to be confused with the contemporary Abdi-Erah of the 'Mananâ' dynasty of Kish. Little is known about this Abdi-Erah, although he is the main writer of letter AS 22 40 which survives on a clay tablet (and see below, in the 1880s BC).

A year name for Abdi-Erah turns up at Eshnunna and another at Tutub. His death is commemorated in a year name from Shaduppum. Evidence regarding his seat of power remains scant, with Tutub more likely to be a vassal city and Eshnunna therefore a more likely location.

c.1904 - 1866 BC

Gungunum's two successors at Ur seek to cut off Isin's access to water by rerouting canals to Larsa. Nippur is also lost around this time, Kazallu seemingly follows suit at some point around 1900 BC, and Uruk breaks away around 1865 BC.

Eshnunna's kings regularly use the title of 'king' from the end of the 1900s, and sometimes deify themselves as god-kings. The old title of ensi is dropped, perhaps because Isin is no longer all-dominant in the north of Sumer.

fl bef c.1895 BC

Sharrija / Sharria

fl c.1880s? BC

Abimadar / Abī-madar

Not on all lists. Little known apart from tablet mentions.

Abī-madar is perhaps the first ruler in the River Diyala region to be named as a ruler in documents from two different sites. Perhaps the most interesting one stems from Shaduppum in the form of IM 63130 regarding the division of an inheritance.

Year names for Abī-madar occur at Shaduppum, commemorating the making of a zarzarum and the building of a ramum. Two year names come from Tutub, these referring to a mīšarum edict by Abī-madar, possibly the earliest Old Babylonian period occurrence of such an edict.

In addition, an Abī-madar year name comes from Eshnunna in which he brings a statue into the god Sîn's temple. A person called Abī-madar is also mentioned in a later-dated letter which is sent by the king of Eshnunna to Sîn-abūšu (possibly of Nerebtum).

fl c.1880s BC

Shiqlanum / Šiqlānum

Eshnunnan king? City uncertain and evidence scant.

c.1880s? BC

Sumu-Amnānum of Shadlash is known only from two inscriptions, one of which comes from Nerebtum while the other comes from Uzarlulu. Both are dedications to Inanna, 'the lady of Šadlaš'.

When precisely he rules at Shadlash is unknown, but it probably takes place before the reign of Sumu-numhim - who is known from the Nerebtum treaty - so approximately during the time of Sumu-nabi-yarim (or Sumun-abi-yarim) of Uzarlulu or that of Mašparum.

The latter's home city is unknown, as are those of two other contemporary kings - Abdi-Erah (see above) and Šiqlānum (possibly of Eshnunna) - but all of them are dated between about 1900-1880 BC. It is Mašparum who is involved in negotiating with Ḫalun-pi-umu of Marad regarding his intentions to go to war.

fl c.1870s BC

Belakum / Belakim / Bēlakum

Dates highly uncertain within about 1880-1870 BC.

Belakum rules Eshnunna at some point around the 1870s BC but precise dates are unavailable. The death of one aš-du-um-la-bu-um (Ašdum-labum) is commemorated in a year name which is known from Uzarlulu.

A group of texts from Shadappum, Tutub, and Uzarlulu which mention this death also contain a year name which commemorates Belakum's death.

fl c.1870s BC

Warassa

Dates highly uncertain within about 1880-1870 BC.

fl c.1870 BC

Ibalpiel / Ibal-pi'el I

Reigned for at least ten years (from a seal impression).

Eshnunna appears to flourish again, most likely due to the decline of Isin and Larsa from the middle of the century. Ibal-pi'el firmly re-adopts the title of 'king', perhaps in recognition of the fact that there is no longer a single 'kingship of Sumer and Akkad' to which to defer.

c.1862 - 1818 BC

Ipiqadad / Ibiq-Adad II

Son. Assumed divine status - practice copied by all successors.

The city under Ibiq-Adad II now expands its territory to incorporate the Diyala valley as far as its confluence with the Tigris. Previously independent minor cities are now subjugated (seemingly between about 1828-1823 BC).

These include Dur-Rimush, Nerebtum, Shaduppum, and Uzarlulu. It may be Apil-sin of Babylon who takes advantage of this by opportunistically grabbing for himself a few of Shaduppum's territorial holdings.

fl c.1818 - 1812 BC

Naramsin / Naram-Sin

Son. Also king of Assyria, probably by conquest.

Naram-Sin considerably extends Eshnunna's territory into northern Sumer at a time in which the small state which is based at Babylon can do little more than defend its own walls. Eshnunna apparently also temporarily conquers the Assyrians at Ashur, as well as the small state of Ekallatum.

fl c.1812? - ? BC

Dannum-tahaz

Son? May have ruled briefly after Ibal-Pi'el II.

c.1810 - 1806 BC

Rim-Sin of Larsa is aggressively expanding his empire and, following the fall of Isin, Uruk is a prime target. It remains unmolested while Larsa appears to be comparatively weakened, but is seemingly a ringleader in opposition activities until it leaves the loose coalition.

Year 2 of the reign of Rimanum of Uruk is noted for a gathering around the city of the armies of the land of Emut-balum (Larsa), together with those of former rivals, Eshnunna, Isin, and Kazallu (the latter shown as a fragment of the name in the inscription in question).

The best interpretation (as examined by Michalowski and Beckman) suggests that these armies approach Uruk while claiming to be allies. Their approach stirs up an enormous dust cloud. When it settles, Rimanum is able to defeat them. His victory is short-lived as Uruk's walls are destroyed the following year.

c.1808 - 1780 BC

Dadusha / Dadūša

Son of Ipiq-Adad II.

c.1781 - 1780 BC

Dadusha uses diplomacy to ally himself around 1781 BC with the dominant regional power at this time, Shamshi-Adad's kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia'. His intention is to conquer the region between the two rivers Zab. He does so, with the victory being commemorated in a victory stele on which he states that he hands over the lands to Shamshi-Adad.

It may only be a year or so before Shamshi-Adad turns on his new ally when he seizes Nerebtum and Shaduppum (and doubtless Dur-Rimush and Uzarlulu too), although these and many more small cities are quickly taken back when the kingdom later fails.

c.1779 - 1765 BC

Ibalpiel II / Ibal-Pi'el II

Son or grandson. One of the major leaders of this period.

c.1776 BC

The kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia' is attacked simultaneously by Yamkhad and Eshnunna, leading to its disappearance and a general restoration of the old order. Eshnunna establishes itself as the strongest regional state.

c.1766 BC

Eshnunnan troops take part in the siege of Razama by Atamrum of Andarig, but Ibal-Pi'el hurries to assist Razama, collecting troops and a battering ram from his governor in Qattunan on the way. The Razamans manage to repel Atamrum before he arrives, so he returns home.

c.1764 - 1762 BC

Silli-Sin

Descendant of Naramsin? Killed by Babylon?

c.1764 BC

Eshnunna had been forcibly forming ties with Mari in the face of Babylon's growing power but, as part of a coalition which attempts to invade Babylonia, the city is defeated and crushed by Hammurabi.

c.1762 BC

The growing Babylonian empire captures the only remaining political power to oppose it when it takes Eshnunna, inheriting well-established trade routes and economic stability, and ending two and-a-half centuries of Eshnunna's independence. A string of small dependant cities also come with this conquest, including Dur-Rimush, Nerebtum, Shaduppum, and Uzarlulu.

Mesopotamian tablet containing names in Akkadian
Ancient Mesopotamian names were always meaningful, and were therefore translatable into other languages, as with this tablet, which records a large number of exotic, non-Akkadian names in Akkadian

c.1756 BC

There is evidence that just four years after its supposed capture, the entire town is ravaged by a terrible flood. After that, the city only rarely appears in cuneiform textual sources, reflecting a probable decline and eventual disappearance.

Iqishi-Tishpak

Descendant of Naramsin? Vassal of Babylon?

? - c.1736? BC

Anni

Killed in Babylon.

c.1741 - 1736 BC

One of Eshnunna's last notable acts is to side with Rim-Sin II of Larsa in his revolt against the Babylonian empire. Anni is captured by the Babylonians and is strangled. The city is destroyed.

 
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