Near East Kingdoms

Eshnunna (City State) (Southern Mesopotamia)

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In southern Mesopotamia the city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation developed out of the end of the Pottery Neolithic across the Fertile Crescent, a period which had seen Neolithic Farmer practices spread far and wide across the Near East and beyond.

As irrigation improved so the more southerly reaches of the Euphrates could at last be occupied by humans and their animals, with permanent settlements arising from the sixth millennium BC. Initially these were pastoralist settlements, but soon farming villages appeared and they gradually grew and improved. At the same time, northern Mesopotamia experienced its own burgeoning development processes, largely starting under the Hassuna culture.

These processes took longer here than they did in the south, in what is now northern Iraq, the western edge of Iran, the south-eastern corner of Turkey, and the eastern wedge of Syria. An urban lifestyle only really appeared in the third millennium BC, thanks in part to such influences being imposed during Sumerian empire-building periods. Archaeology has uncovered a wealth of detail about settlements in this region, but many more sites remain to be examined.

The minor city of Eshnunna (the modern archaeological mound of Tell Asmar) was situated in the Diyala valley to the north-east of Sumer itself, but it was still very much a part of Sumerian culture and civilisation. The tell rises to a height of about twenty-five metres above the plain and covers an area of around eighty hectares.

One of the most important discoveries here is a series of temples which were built over several centuries, starting from the earliest occupation. These temples were dedicated to the goddess Inanna, a major deity in the Sumerian pantheon. The temples were built on top of one another, with each successive temple being larger and more elaborate than the last.

Constructed and occupied from circa 2900 BC, the city was never a significant power during Sumerian times but, in the period of Ur's 'Third Dynasty' towards the end of the third millennium BC, it was a well-attested city and the capital of one of Ur's provinces of the same name.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Peter Bellwood (Second Ed, Wiley-Blackwell, 2022), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from Mesopotamia, Chris Scarre (Ed, Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Guild Publishing, London 1989), and from External Links: Nuzi (Alchetron), and Ancient Worlds, and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love ('List 3' of Sumerian rulers at Sarissa.org), and Images from History (University of Alabama), and The Ancient Near East, A Life, Piotr Michalowski & Gary Beckman (Orientalia lovaniensia Analecta 220, 2012, and available to download as a PDF), and Beginnings of Old Babylonian Babylon: Sumu-abum and Sumu-la-El, Rients de Boer (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol 70, 2018, and available via JSTOR), and Amorites in the early Old Babylonian Period, R de Boer (Universiteit Leiden, The Netherlands, doctoral thesis which is available to download as a PDF (author's corrected version)), and Tell Asmar (Archaeology News Online Magazine).)

c.2900 - 2750 BC

The Jemdet Nasr period fades around 2900 BC in favour of a new, outward-looking 'Early Dynastic' period. True writing now blossoms as it moves closer to spoken Sumerian, archives explode with mercantile records and administrative acts, and the first kings begin to appear as leading city figures take on more duties and increasing power, ostensibly as deputies of the gods themselves.

Jemdet Nasr's 'Mound B' was further exacavated in the 1980s, immediately prior to the First Gulf War, with the north-eastern area of that mound being examined here

Nippur becomes the focus of Sumer's unified cult practices. This unique status lasts until the eighteenth century BC which witnesses the rise of Babylon. Seals mention it frequently, even when they are found in small or obscure Sumerian cities such as Abu Salabikh, Arina, Kesh, Urum, and Zabalam.

Other small cities emerge at this time, such as Eshnunna in the north, on the periphery of Sumerian civilisation. No kings are known for the city at this time, suggesting that it is a satellite colony rather than an independent creation.

c.2030s BC

Shu-Sin of Ur gives a daughter in marriage to the Elamite prince of Anshan, but the majority of his reign oversees continued regional decline. Amorites continue to migrate into the east and north of Ur's territory, essentially removing them from Ur's bureaucratic oversight without even fighting a pitched battle.

In increasing desperation at the unmanaged immigration and potential spread of revolt, Shu-Sin orders a wall to be built which stretches two hundred and seventy-four kilometres. It is frequently attacked.

The ruins of the once-vast city of Ur were excavated in 1922 by Sir Leonard Woolley, which is when the 'Royal Tombs' were discovered (External Link: Creative Commons Licence 4.0 International)

c.2029 - 2026 BC

Ensi of Eshnunna for Shu-Sin of Ur.

Ituria, ensi of the city for Ur between at least the eighth year of the reign of Shu-Sin to the second year of the reign off Ibbi-Sin, builds a temple for Shu-Sin as his divine overlord. Soon afterwards a palace is attached to this.

fl c.2026 BC

Son. Claimed independent kingship of the city.

c.2026 BC

Eshnunna breaks away from the control of Ur during the second year of Ibbi-Sin's reign. Former governor and now king, Shu-ilija maintains good relationships with Ishbi-Erra of Isin as does his successor.

However, the succeeding rulers drop the title of 'king' to use the lesser one of ensi (governor) or ishshakum (general), insisting that the kingship of the state belongs to the city's god, Tishpak.

c.2013 BC

Having already appealed for help to Ibbi-Sin of Ur in regard to the encroaching forces of Ishbi-Erra of Isin and having seen that call for help refused, around this time Kazallu falls to Isin. Having maintained its own good relations with this new power in the north, Eshnunna receives Isin's help in battle against Subartu.

Some of the earliest cities, such as Sippar, Borsippa, and Kish in the north, and Ur, Uruk, and Eridu in the south, formed the endpoints of what became the complex Sumerian network of cities and canals (click or tap on map to view full sized)

fl c.2010 BC

Received help from Isin to win a battle against Subartu.

Governor for Isin? Bore an Elamite name.

Governor for Isin? Bore an Elamite name.

Eshnunna appears to maintain close contact with Elam, although it seems not to be subject to any conquest by the Elamites. Possibly Isin's influence in this region remains strong.

fl c.1950s BC

Prince of Eshnunna. A powerful ruler.

fl to c.1940 BC

Prince of Eshnunna.

The city is sacked during the time of Usurawassu, possibly by Anum-muttabbil of Der, and may temporarily be subject to that city. Little is known about the subsequent nine rulers at a time at which the Assyrians are making raids into central and southern Mesopotamia.

These figures are from Eshnunna, probably dating from the period around 2000 BC when the city was experiencing a period of independence and regional power

Prince of Eshnunna.

Prince of Eshnunna.

c.1920? BC

Isin suddenly and rapidly begins to decline. The precise events are not known but, around this time, Gungunum seizes Ur as Isin's governor of the province of Lagash (and apparently based at Larsa). This move cuts Isin's vital trade route, economically crippling the city.

Perhaps not coincidentally, the local Kütepe period civilisation (2000-1700 BC) which is based at Kanesh in Anatolia is at its height between 1950-1800 BC, which accounts for the Karum-Kanesh level II archaeological period.

Brother or son? Prince of Eshnunna.

fl c.1900? BC

Son of Urninmar. Overlord of Abdi-Erah (below).

fl c.1900? BC

Barely known, perhaps a minor Diyala region ruler.

Abdi-Erah is (probably) not to be confused with the contemporary Abdi-Erah of the 'Mananâ' dynasty of Kish. Little is known about this Abdi-Erah, although he is the main writer of letter AS 22 40 which survives on a clay tablet (and see below, in the 1880s BC).

French archaeologists made early excavations of Kish in the nineteenth century, followed by more extensive work by joint expeditions from Oxford University and the Field Museum of Chicago in the early twentieth century

A year name for Abdi-Erah turns up at Eshnunna and another at Tutub. His death is commemorated in a year name from Shaduppum. Evidence regarding his seat of power remains scant, with Tutub more likely to be a vassal city and Eshnunna therefore a more likely location.

c.1904 - 1866 BC

Gungunum's two successors at Ur seek to cut off Isin's access to water by rerouting canals to Larsa. Nippur is also lost around this time, Kazallu seemingly follows suit at some point around 1900 BC, and Uruk breaks away around 1865 BC.

Eshnunna's kings regularly use the title of 'king' from the end of the 1900s, and sometimes deify themselves as god-kings. The old title of ensi is dropped, perhaps because Isin is no longer all-dominant in the north of Sumer (and Sumer itself has already vanished).

About a hundred and fifty kilometres to the south of Baghdad lies a great archaeological mound which is about eighteen metres high and almost 1.5 kilometres across: Nippur, the city of Enlil the 'mooring-rope' of heaven and earth which served as Sumer's primary religious centre

fl bef c.1895 BC

Prince of Eshnunna. Known only through 2 year names.

fl c.1880s? BC

Not on all lists. Little known apart from tablet mentions.

Abī-madar is perhaps the first ruler in the River Diyala region to be named as a ruler in documents from two different sites. Perhaps the most interesting one stems from Shaduppum in the form of IM 63130 regarding the division of an inheritance.

Year names for Abī-madar occur at Shaduppum, commemorating the making of a zarzarum and the building of a ramum. Two year names come from Tutub, these referring to a mīšarum edict by Abī-madar, possibly the earliest Old Babylonian period occurrence of such an edict.

In addition, an Abī-madar year name comes from Eshnunna in which he brings a statue into the god Sîn's temple. A person called Abī-madar is also mentioned in a later-dated letter which is sent by the king of Eshnunna to Sîn-abūšu (possibly of Nerebtum).

The ancient city of Shaduppum - the modern archaeological site of Tell Harmal - now lies in the Baghdad governorate of Iraq, and within the borders of modern Baghdad itself

fl c.1880s BC

Eshnunnan king? City uncertain and evidence scant.

c.1880s? BC

Sumu-Amnānum of Shadlash is known only from two inscriptions, one of which comes from Nerebtum while the other comes from Uzarlulu. Both are dedications to Inanna, 'the lady of Šadlaš' (Shadlash).

When precisely he rules at Shadlash is unknown, but it probably takes place before the reign of Sumu-numhim - who is known from the Nerebtum treaty - so approximately during the time of Sumu-nabi-yarim (or Sumun-abi-yarim) of Uzarlulu or that of Mašparum.

The latter's home city is unknown, as are those of two other contemporary kings - Abdi-Erah (see above) and Šiqlānum (possibly of Eshnunna) - but all of them are dated between about 1900-1880 BC. It is Mašparum who is involved in negotiating with Ḫalun-pi-umu of Marad regarding his intentions to go to war.

Ceramic pot-bellows were employed to supply air to smelting furnaces, significantly contributing to early iron production in the region, with these examples coming from the later levels of ancient Uzarlulu (modern Tell al-Dhiba'i)

fl c.1870s BC

Dates highly uncertain within about 1880-1870 BC.

Belakum rules Eshnunna at some point around the 1870s BC but precise dates are unavailable. The death of one aš-du-um-la-bu-um (Ašdum-labum) is commemorated in a year name which is known from Uzarlulu.

A group of texts from Shadappum, Tutub, and Uzarlulu which mention this death also contain a year name which commemorates Belakum's death.

fl c.1870s BC

Dates highly uncertain within about 1880-1870 BC.

fl c.1870 BC

Reigned for at least ten years (from a seal impression).

Eshnunna appears to flourish again, most likely due to the decline of Isin and Larsa from the middle of the century. Ibal-pi'el firmly re-adopts the title of 'king', perhaps in recognition of the fact that there is no longer a single 'kingship of Sumer and Akkad' to which to defer.

Tell es-Senkereh, the site of ancient Larsa, one-time capital of Sumer, is one of the largest archaeological sites in Iraq

c.1862 - 1818 BC

Son. Assumed divine status - practice copied by all successors.

The city under Ibiq-Adad II now expands its territory to incorporate the Diyala valley as far as its confluence with the Tigris. Previously independent minor cities are now subjugated (seemingly between about 1828-1823 BC).

These include Dur-Rimush, Nerebtum, Shaduppum, and Uzarlulu. It may be Apil-sin of Babylon who takes advantage of this by opportunistically grabbing for himself a few of Shaduppum's territorial holdings.

fl c.1818 - 1812 BC

Son. Also king of Assyria, probably by conquest.

Naram-Sin considerably extends Eshnunna's territory into northern Sumer at a time in which the small state which is based at Babylon can do little more than defend its own walls. Eshnunna apparently also temporarily conquers the Assyrians at Ashur, as well as the small state of Ekallatum.

The archaeological Qal'at Sherqat mound is part of the ancient city of Assur, located along the Tigris in northern Mesopotamia in a specific geo-ecological zone at the borderline between rain-fed and irrigation agriculture

fl c.1812? - ? BC

Son? May have ruled briefly after Ibal-Pi'el II.

c.1810 - 1806 BC

Rim-Sin of Larsa is aggressively expanding his empire and, following the fall of Isin, Uruk is a prime target. It remains unmolested while Larsa appears to be comparatively weakened, but is seemingly a ringleader in opposition activities until it leaves the loose coalition.

Year 2 of the reign of Rimanum of Uruk is noted for a gathering around the city of the armies of the land of Emut-balum (Larsa), together with those of former rivals, Eshnunna, Isin, and Kazallu (the latter shown as a fragment of the name in the inscription in question).

The best interpretation (as examined by Michalowski and Beckman) suggests that these armies approach Uruk while claiming to be allies. Their approach stirs up an enormous dust cloud. When it settles, Rimanum is able to defeat them. His victory is short-lived as Uruk's walls are destroyed in the following year.

Smaller finds from the site of ancient Mashkan-Shapir have included eleven cylinder seals, several stone pendants, typical burial goods, weaponry artefacts, model chariots with a connection to Nergal, and a clay cone of the little-known Larsa ruler, Zabaya

c.1808 - 1780 BC

Son of Ipiq-Adad II.

c.1781 - 1780 BC

Dadusha uses diplomacy to ally himself around 1781 BC with the dominant regional power at this time, Shamshi-Adad's kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia'. His intention is to conquer the region between the two rivers Zab. He does so, with the victory being commemorated in a victory stele on which he states that he hands over the lands to Shamshi-Adad.

It may only be a year or so before Shamshi-Adad turns on his new ally when he seizes Nerebtum and Shaduppum (and doubtless Dur-Rimush and Uzarlulu too), although these and many more small cities are quickly taken back when the kingdom later fails.

c.1779 - 1765 BC

Son or grandson. One of the major leaders of this period.

c.1776 BC

The kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia' is attacked simultaneously by Yamkhad and Eshnunna, leading to its disappearance and a general restoration of the old order. Eshnunna establishes itself as the strongest regional state.

Shamshi-Adad's soldiers, who had proven to be so successful in forming a short-lived but powerful regional empire to the east of the Euphrates which is generally known as the kingdom of 'Upper Mesopotamia', are shown in this Assyrian relief

c.1766 BC

Eshnunnan troops take part in the siege of Razama by Atamrum of Andarig, but Ibal-Pi'el hurries to assist Razama, on the way collecting troops and a battering ram from his governor in Qattunan. The Razamans manage to repel Atamrum before he arrives, so he returns home.

c.1764 - 1762 BC

Descendant of Naramsin? Killed by Babylon?

c.1764 BC

Eshnunna had forcibly been forming ties with Mari in the face of Babylon's growing power but, as part of a coalition which attempts to invade Babylonia, the city is defeated and crushed by Hammurabi.

c.1762 BC

The growing Babylonian empire captures the only remaining political power to oppose it when it takes Eshnunna, inheriting well-established trade routes and economic stability, and ending two and-a-half centuries of Eshnunna's independence. A string of small dependant cities also come with this conquest, including Dur-Rimush, Nerebtum, Shaduppum, and Uzarlulu.

Ancient Mesopotamian names were always meaningful, and therefore were translatable into other languages, as with this tablet which records a large number of exotic, non-Akkadian names in the Akkadian language

c.1756 BC

There is evidence that just four years after its supposed capture, the entire town is ravaged by a terrible flood. After that, the city only rarely appears in cuneiform textual sources, reflecting a probable decline and eventual disappearance.

Descendant of Naramsin? Vassal of Babylon?

? - c.1736? BC

Killed in Babylon. Last king. City destroyed.

c.1741 - 1736 BC

One of Eshnunna's last notable acts is to side with Rim-Sin II of Larsa in his revolt against the Babylonian empire. Anni is captured by the Babylonians and is strangled. The city is destroyed.

Babylon began life as a modest town which had been seized from Kazallu, but was quickly fortified by the building of a city wall in the nineteenth century BC