European Kingdoms

Greece

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The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
AD 395 - 1453

In AD 395, the Roman empire finally split permanently between Eastern and Western empires, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years. As the Western Empire declined in the face of barbarian incursions and settlement, the Eastern Empire survived and, in some periods, actually thrived. The citizens of the Eastern Empire thought of themselves as the true survivors and descendants of Rome, and called themselves Romans until at least the end of the first millennium.

The accession of Honorius and Arcadius was marked by a basic change in the role of the emperor. It affected east and west differently, and what happened is of major importance in comprehending what occurred subsequently in the two halves of the empire. Roman emperors after Theodosius were heads of state but no longer held effective power. This now fell into the hands of their chief ministers. The change was complete in the west, but less so in the east where occasional emperors still took direct command. Perhaps the crucial difference was that in the east the ministers were usually civilians, but in the west they were almost without exception professional soldiers who tended to dominate their emperors.

Dynasty of Theodosius

From the start, the eastern capital was based at Constantinople, dedicated by the emperor Constantine the Great in 330.

395 - 408

Arcadius

Son of Theodosius, last sole ruler of Rome.

405 - 408

Arcadius is dominated by his praetorian prefect, Anthemius, who is the real power behind the throne.

408 - 450

Theodosius II

Nephew of Honorius.

423 - 425

Upon the death of the Western Roman emperor, Honorius, his patrician elevates Johannes as emperor. Theodosius II elevates Valentinian III first to Caesar, then to co-emperor as Augustus. In late 424, he sends Aëtius to the Huns to seek military help, but while Aëtius is away Johannes is betrayed and captured. Aëtius returns with sizable Hunnic army and comes to an agreement that establishes the political landscape of the Western Roman Empire for the next thirty years. The Huns are paid off and sent home, while Aëtius is promoted to magister militum.

450 - 457

Marcian

m Pulcheria, granddaughter of Theodosius I.

Dynasty of Leo

Emperor Anastasius enacted vast reforms which restored Constantinople's economic and military strength. These paved the way for Justinian's later invasion of Italy.

457 - 474

Leo I

473

Leo sends his own candidate to rule the remains of the Western empire. Upon the arrival of Julius Nepos, Glycerius immediately surrenders.

474

Leo II

474 - 491

Zeno the Isaurian (Tarasikodissa)

Sent the Ostrogoths to regain Italy for the East.

476

The last Western Roman emperor is removed from office and the Gothic commander of the army rules Italy directly. Zeno still regards Julius Nepos as rightful emperor of the West until the latter's death in 480.

475 - 476

[Basiliscus]

491 - 518

Anastasius I

497

Anastasius returns the Western Roman imperial regalia which Constantinople had received in 476, confirming acceptance of Theodoric's Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy.

Dynasty of Justinian

518 - 527

Justin I

Rebuilt the Roman empire.

523 - 525

Under pressure from Byzantium, the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia installs a Christian king in Yemen (Saba).

530 - 552

In 536, Rome is retaken, and an exarchate set up at Ravenna in 552 to govern the Eastern Empire's central and southern Italian holdings (including the marshland stronghold of Venice).

533 - 534

General Belisarius is sent to North Africa with an army, and in one campaigning season, the Vandals are conquered.

527 - 565

Justinian I

565 - 578

Justin II

568

The Lombards begin to incur into Italy from the north, and the power of Byzantium in the west wanes over the course of the next two centuries.

578 - 582

Tiberius II

Caesar (vice-ruler) 574-578.

582 - 602

Maurice

Non-Dynastic

602 - 610

Phocas

607 - 616

The Sassanid Persians invade and conquer Byzantine Syria, Egypt & Asia Minor.

Dynasty of Heraclius

610 - 641

Heraclius

623 - 628

Heraclius attacks the Persians to regain recently lost territory. His campaigns also return Armenia to Byzantine control.

c.632 - c.651

The Bulgars form a capital at Phanagoria on the Taman Peninsula and make peace with the Byzantines.

646

With the end of the Persian Marzban of Eastern Armenia, the eastern state is fully reunited under Byzantine control.

641

Constantine III

641

Heracleon

641 - 668

Constans II Pogonatus

Last emperor to visit Rome.

668 - 685

Constantine IV

674 - 677

The Islamic empire also besieges Constantinople.

682

North African Morocco is lost to the Islamic empire.

685 - 695

Justinian II Rinotmetus

Banished.

Non-Dynastic

These emperors belong to no dynasty and obtained brief power in a disturbed period when the Islamic empire was sweeping through the Byzantine North African possessions.

695 - 698

Leontius

698

Tunisia and Algeria are conquered by the Islamic empire.

698 - 705

Tiberius III

705

Armenia is lost to the Islamic empire.

705 - 711

Justinian II

Restored.

711 - 713

Philippicus Bardanes

713 - 716

Anastasius II

716 - 717

Theodosius III

717 - 718

During the reign of the Islamic empire's Caliph Sulayman, Constantinople is put under protracted siege, but it eventually fails, marking the end of any serious Islamic ambitions to conquer the Byzantine empire.

Isaurian (Syrian / Iconoclastic) Dynasty

717 - 741

Leo III

726 - 728

Byzantine control of the exarchate of Ravenna is briefly lost as the Lombards take control.

741 - 775

Constantine V Capronymus

752

The Byzantines permanently lose control of the exarchate of Ravenna to the Lombards.

767

Georgian Abasgia rises in revolt and throws off Byzantine rule.

775 - 780

Leo IV the Khazar

780 - 797

Constantine VI

Blinded & murdered by his mother Irene.

797 - 802

Empress Irene

Regent 780 - 790.

End of the Isaurian Dynasty / Nicophoran Dynasty

802 - 811

Nicephorus I

Killed in battle by Bulgar Khan Krum in 811.

807

The intervention of the Niceta fleet reaffirms Byzantine sovereignty over the lagoon region of Venice, Istria and Dalmatia.

811

Strauracius

811 - 813

Michael I Rhangabé

813 - 820

Leo V the Armenian

c.820

Cyprus is taken by the Islamic empire.

Phrygian (Amorian) Dynasty

820 - 829

Michael II the Stammerer

827

Sicily is occupied by the Aghlabids as part of the Islamic empire.

829 - 842

Theophilus I

842 - 867

Michael III

Drunkard & gambler. Murdered by Basil I.

867

[Theophilus II]

Macedonian Dynasty

867 - 886

Basil I

886 - 912

Leo VI the Wise

886 - 913

Alexander

912 - 959

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus

919 - 944

Romanus I Lecapenus

924

Constantine (VIII)

Son of Romanus, attempted usurpation.

944 - 945

Stephen

944 - 945

Constantine (?)

959 - 963

Romanus II

963

Regency of Theophano

963

Theophano, widow of Romanus II, Regent for her infant sons Basil II and Constantine VIII (IX).

963 - 969

Nicephorus II Phocas

m Theophano. Murdered by John I.

965

Cyprus is recovered from the Islamic empire.

969

Nicephorus regains Antioch from the Islamic empire.

Varangian Guards

The Varangian Guards of the Byzantine court in the tenth century were recruited from eastern-travelling Vikings who came to Greece through the lands of the Rus

969 - 976

John I Zimiskes

Held power.

963 - 1025

Basil II Bulgaroctonus

976 - 1028

Constantine VIII (IX)

988

Bulgaria takes the Greek region of Epirus from the Byzantine empire.

992

Basil II agrees the first important commercial treaty with Venice, which give their merchants an advantage.

1014

Basil II 'Bulgar Slayer' captures and blinds most of the 15,000-strong Bulgarian army on 29 July.

1028 - 1050

Zoë Porphyrogenita

1028 - 1034

Romanus III Argyrus

1034 - 1041

Michael IV the Paphlagonian

1041 - 1042

Michael V Calaphates

1042 - 1050

Theodora Porphyrogenita

Joint Empress with Zoë.

1042

Zoë marries and confers the diadem on:

1042 - 1055

Constantine IX (X) Monomachus

1050 - 1056

Theodora

Sole Empress from 1055

Non-Dynastic

1056 - 1057

Michael VI Stratioticus

Prelude to the Comnenian Dynasty

1057 - 1059

Isaac I Comnenus

Abdicated.

1059 - 1067

Constantine X (XI) Ducas

1064

Armenia is conquered by the Seljuq Turks invading Asia Minor.

1067 - 1071

Romanus IV Diogenes

1071

Constantine (XII)

Claimed title.

1071 - 1078

Michael VII Ducas

1078 - 1081

Nicephorus III Botaniates

Revolt of Nicephorus Bryennius.

Dynasty of the Comneni

1081 - 1118

Alexius I Comnenus

1082 - 1085

A 'Golden Bull' is agreed with the Venetians, establishing new commercial privileges. In 1085, Alexius formally declares Venice to be independent of Byzantium.

1086

The Turkic Sultanate of Rum is established out of Byzantine territories in Asia Minor.

1118 - 1143

John II Calojohannes

1124

Returning from the Holy Land, Domenico Michiel conquers Tyre, Spalato (Split), Sebenico (Šibenik), and other Byzantine cities for Venice.

1143 - 1180

Manuel I

1163 - 1180

The Serbs and Bosnians fall to Byzantium.

1171

Manuel Comnenus orders the arrest of all Venetians living in Constantinople

1176

The Byzantines are defeated by the Seljuqs of Rum at the Battle of Myriocephalon.

1180 - 1183

Alexius II

1183 - 1185

Andronicus I

Dynasty of the Angeli

1185 - 1195

Isaac II Angelus

Dethroned.

1192

Cyprus is seized from the Byzantines by Richard the Lionheart of England and handed over to the Christian king of Jerusalem.

1195 - 1203

Alexius III

1203 - 1204

Isaac II

Restored.

1203 - 1204

Alexius IV

1204

Alexius V Ducas Murtzuphius

1204

The capture of Constantinople is the Fourth Crusade's 'success', and Latin emperors are established in the city. The Byzantines withdraw to Nicæa in Anatolia, but rival claimants also established holdings in Trebizond and Epirus so that, at one point, there are four claimants to the Byzantine throne, as well as the Bulgar and Serb states.

Eastern Roman Emperors in Nicæa

1204 - 1222

Theodorus I Lascaris

1222 - 1254

John III Ducas Vatatzes

1242

Epirus is defeated by John III and its ruler is reduced to a despot.

1246

Thessalonica falls to John III.

1254 - 1258

Theodorus II Lascaris

1258 - 1261

John IV Lascaris

1259 - 1282

Michael VIII Palæologus

Returns to Constantinople.

1261

Constantinople is recaptured and the Eastern Roman Emperors are re-established there.

Rival Eastern Emperors in Trebizond

Claimants to the Byzantine throne set up rival powerbases, including this one in the Pontic Greek cities of Trebizond, Sinope and Paphlagonia. Trebizond was the last of the Byzantine territories to fall to the Ottoman empire, earning it the occasional title of the last Greek empire.

1204 - 1222

Alexius I Comnenus

1222 - 1235

Andronicus I Gidus

1235 - 1238

John I Axuch

1238 - 1263

Manuel I

1263 - 1266

Andronicus II

1266 - 1280

George

1280 - 1297

John II

1297 - 1330

Alexius II

1330 - 1332

Andronicus III

Retook Epirus.

1332

Manuel II

1332 - 1340

Basil

1340 - 1341

Irene Palaeologina

1341 - 1342

Anna Comnena

Also ruled for a short time in early 1341.

1341

Michael

First rule.

1342 - 1344

John III

1344 - 1349

Michael

Restored.

1349 - 1390

Alexius III

1390 - 1416

Manuel III

1416 - 1429

Alexius IV

1429 - 1459

John IV

1459 - 1461

David

1461

Trebizond falls to Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II.

Rival Eastern Emperors in Epirus (Thessalonica)

Claimants to the Byzantine throne set up rival powerbases, including this one in the territory of the former Greek kingdom of Epirus.

1204 - 1215

Michael I Ducas

1215 - 1230

Theodore Ducas

Emperor in Thessalonica 1227-30. Captured by John II Asen.

1224

The Crusader kingdom of Thessalonica is gained, and the Epirians move their court there. From 1231, Michael II rules Epirus as a subsidiary state.

1230 - 1237

Manuel

Emperor in Thessalonica.

1237 - 1242

John

Emperor in Thessalonica.

1242

John is defeated by John III Ducas Vatatzes of Nicæa, and is reduced to a despot.

1242 - 1244

John

Despot.

1244 - 1246

Demetrius

Despot.

1246

Thessalonica falls to John III Ducas Vatatze of Nicæa. Epirus is isolated.

1231 - 1271

Michael II

Granted title of despot of Epirus by John III in 1249.

1271 - 1296

Nicephoras I

1296 - 1318

Thomas

1213 - 1323

Nicholas Orsini

1323 - 1335

John Orsini

1335 - 1337

Nicephoras II

Re-established his claim in 1340.

1337 & 1340

Epirus absorbed by Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III.

Latin Emperors at Constantinople

With the conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Latin rulers govern the city and much of the former empire, backed by Venice and France. The leader of the Fourth Crusade also sets up other minor Crusader states in Greece.

1204 - 1205

Baldwin I of Flanders

Count Baldwin IX of Flanders.

1206 - 1216

Henry of Flanders

Count of Flanders.

1217

Peter de Courtenay

1217 - 1219

Yolanda of Flanders

Countess of Flanders.

1221 - 1228

Robert de Courtenay

1228 - 1237

John of Brienne

1228 - 1261

Baldwin II

The Byzantine Emperor returned to Constantinople.

Dynasty of the Palæologus

1261

Emperor Michael, based at Nicaea, returns to Constantinople.

1261 - 1282

Michael VIII Palæologus

1282 - 1328

Andronicus II

Knights of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem took Rhodes.

1293 - 1320

Michael IX

1320 - 1328

In a period of anarchy Prusa [Bursa] is lost to the Ottomans in 1326.

1328 - 1341

Andronicus III

1341 - 1376

John V Cantacuzenes

1341 - 1354

John VI

1348

Semi-rival to the title sets up a power base in Morea, and in 1354 - 1376 is the only Byzantine power.

Despots of Morea

Morea was the name by which the Peloponnesus peninsula in Greece was known during the Middle Ages. After the Latin conquest of Byzantine Constantinople in 1204, Venice gained control of part of it, until this Byzantine rival territory rose to power in southern Greece.

1348 - 1380

Manuel Cantacuzenus

1380 - 1383

Matthew Cantacuzenus

1383

Demetrius Cantacuzenus

1383 - 1407

Theodore I Palaeologus

1407 - 1443

Theodore II Palaeologus

1428 - 1449

Constantine XI Dragases

Only remaining claimant for the Byzantine crown.

1428 - 1460

Thomas, Despot of Morea

Daughter Zoe married Ivan III of the Russian Moscow State.

1432

The principality of Achaia is inherited.

1460

Mistra, Morea, falls to Ottoman Turk Mehmed II. Venice holds on to some sections of Morea, and further wars are fought up to 1718, until the Turks finally secure all of it.

Dynasty of the Palæologus (Continued)

1376 - 1379

Andronicus IV

1379 - 1391

John V

Restored.

1390

John VII

1391 - 1425

Manuel II

1425 - 1448

John VIII