Middle East Kingdoms

Islamic Empire

Under Muhammed, Islam spread swiftly to cover the western half of Arabia, and the very east (the eastern half of the modern United Arab Emirates and Oman).

The Hijrah (Islamic Historical) Era
AD 622 - 632

622 - 632

Muhammed

Begins on 16 July 622. Died 7 June in Medina.

Rightly Guided Caliphs / Rashidun Caliphate
AD 632 - 661

The Rightly Guided Caliphs were Muhammed's companions, or 'sahaba', although the concept was only established by the later Abbasids. The caliphate was created based on the idea that the caliph was the direct successor to Muhammed's political authority, and each caliph was chosen either by his predecessor before death, or by a council. Soon after Muhammed's death, a gathering of the most important figures in early Islam at Medina selected his close companion, Abu Bakr, as his successor. The city itself was selected as the growing empire's first capital.

632 - 634

Abu Bakr

Assumed the title Khalifah, 'successor' to the Prophet.

632 - 633

Abu Bakr's accession triggers the Ridda wars, or Wars of Apostasy, when several Arabic tribes, including Christian Arabs in Jordan, and other Arabs in Arabia, Oman, and Yemen, refuse to fully observe strict Muslim practises. Abu Bakr's campaigning defeats all of them, establishing Islamic rule over all of Arabia. Following this he sends armies towards Byzantine Syria and Sassanid Iraq.

634 - 644

Umar ibn al-Khattab / Umar I the Great

Killed by a slave.

636 - 642

It is under the leadership of Umar that Islam begins its rapid expansion outside Arabia. Eastern Roman Emperor Heraclius is defeated, and Palestine and Phoenicia are conquered in 636 and 637 respectively. Mesopotamia is conquered from the Persians in 637, and Jerusalem falls in 638. Roman Syria and Egypt are taken in 638-640, and the Persians themselves are defeated in 642. Following Umar's murder, a council of electors nominates Uthman as his successor.

644 - 656

Uthman ibm Affan

Of the Umayyad Clan.

645 - 652

Expansion continues under Uthman. The Georgian kingdom of Iberia is taken in 645, inroads are made in Tunisia from 647, and Persia is fully overrun by 651, along with Khorasan, where an Islamic Emirate is formed to govern the wild region. Former Kushanshah Afghanistan is taken in 652, but an attempted invasion of the kingdom of Dongola is repulsed in the same year. However, Uthman's style of leadership is perceived by some as being too much like that of a king, and he is murdered. Ali takes command, although he is not fully accepted by the governors of Egypt.

656 - 661

Ali ibn Abi Talib

Son-in-law & cousin of Muhammed. Assassinated.

655 - 661

Ali is the second historical follower of Islam. Some Muslims see him as one of several possible leaders while others believe him to be divine. The Sunni/Shia split in Islam is created by his rule, with Sunni Muslims counting Abu Bakr as the first legitimate Caliph, while the Shi'a count Ali as the first truly legitimate Caliph. For two decades around these years the First Islamic Civil War rages in Arabia, and Ali is assassinated in 661. Hasan is appointed as his successor.

661

Hasan ibn Ali

Son. Forced to resign.

661

Hasan, regarded as a righteous ruler by Sunni Muslims, is recognised by only half the Islamic empire. He is challenged and ultimately defeated by Mu'awiya, the Umayyad governor of Syria.

Umayyad / Omayyad Caliphate
AD 661 - 749

The governor of Islamic Syria, Mu'awiya, was one of Ali's main challengers during the First Islamic Civil War. He claimed descent from an ancestor who was common to both him and the Prophet Muhammed, although their clans within the encompassing Quraish tribe were different. After he had overcome Ali and the other claimants he founded the Umayyad dynasty, named after his great-grandfather, Umayya ibn Abd Shams, and made the position of caliph an hereditary one. The capital was established at Damascus just over a decade after the dynasty was founded.

661 - 680

Mu'awiya / MuawiyahI

First Sufyanid caliph. Won the caliphate from Ali.

Hujr ibn Adi

Rebel who refused to drop his allegiance to Ali. Killed.

674 - 677

The capital moves to Damascus. An Arab aristocratic government is established there. The empire also besieges Constantinople.

680

Following the death of Mu'awiya, his son Yazid kills his own rival for the caliphate, Hussein, at Karbala. Hussein's martyrdom makes the city holy to Shiites. Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, his fellow opponent to Yazid, survives and continues his opposition, becoming a recognised claimant to the caliphate in 683.

680

Hussein

Son of Ali. Rival for the caliphate. Killed by Yazid.

680 - 692

Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr

Grandson of Abu Bakr through his mother. Killed in battle.

680 - 683

Yazid I

Son of Mu'awiya.

682

Byzantine territory in Morocco falls to the Islamic empire.

683 - 684

Upon the death of Yazid, his son becomes Caliph Mu'awiya II, but he seems not to be accepted outside Syria. Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr renews his own claim, gathering supporters from the many who are dissatisfied with Umayyad rule. Civil war breaks out, but a rival faction under Marwan quickly proves to be superior, conquering Egypt and the renegade areas of Syria that have sided with the opposition. Ibn Zubayr is finally killed in 692 in battle against Abd al Malik.

683 - 684

Mu'awiya / Muawiyah II

Son. Last Sufyanid caliph.

684 - 685

Marwan I

Umayyad from a different branch.

685 - 705

Abd al Malik

Son.

686 - 687

Abd al Malik's accession sparks another rebellion which takes form under Al-Mukhtar. A battle at Kufa in the following year ends the rebellion when Al-Mukhtar is killed.

686 - 687

Al-Mukhtar

Son of one of the first Islamic warriors to be killed.

691

In the same year as Iraq is brought fully back under Umayyad control, the Dome of the Rock is completed in Jerusalem, on the site of the former Jewish Second Temple (destroyed during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in AD 70). It survives to this day, making it the oldest existing Islamic building in the world, and probably the holiest.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

698 - 703

Abd al Malik spends his first years reconsolidating Umayyad control of the empire after the civil war, but in 698 he turns his attentions towards expansion. By 703 the Byzantine North African territories in Algeria and Tunisia have fallen to the Islamic empire.

705 - 715

al Walid I

Son.

705

Armenia falls to the Islamic empire.

710 - 711

The Umayyad general, Muhammad bin Qasim, sails from to Sindh in India and conquers both that and Punjab (in modern Pakistan), marking major conquests for the caliphate. In 711, Visigothic Spain falls, signalling the end of the Visigoths as a coherent entity. The Arabs also build the Umayyad mosque in Damascus.

715 - 717

Sulayman

Brother.

717 - 719

During Sulayman's reign, Byzantine Constantinople is placed under protracted siege, but it fails in 718, marking the end of any serious ambitions to conquer the Byzantine empire. The following year in the Islamic Emirate of Khorasan, the Abbasids begin to seek followers to their cause of removing their sworn enemies, the Umayyad caliphs, from power. They also target the supporters of the failed rebellion by al-Mukhtar in 686.

717 - 720

Umar II

Cousin.

720 - 724

Yazid II

Son of Abd al Malik.

720

Shortly after his accession, Yazid II is faced with a major rebellion in Iraq by the recently recalled governor of the Islamic Emirate of Khorasan, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab. After being imprisoned briefly by Umar II, the governor refuses to swear allegiance to Yazid II. Raising an army of his own, he dies in battle against Yazid II.

720

Yazid ibn al-Muhallab

Rebel governor of Islamic Emirate of Khorasan.

721

The Islamic army in Spain suffers a major defeat at the hands of Odo, duke of Aquitaine, at the Battle of Toulouse.

724 - 743

Hisham

Brother of Yazid II. Grandfather of the first Umayyad Amir of Spain.

732

The Frankish mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeats an army of 90,000 Arabs at Tours in France, ending the northwards expansion of the empire through Spain and into southern France. In fact, under Hisham, expansion is generally restrained. Instead, he establishes court at Resafa in northern Syria, and resumes Islamic attacks on the Byzantine empire.

743 - 744

al Walid II

Son of Yazid II. Killed.

744

Yazid III is a son of al-Walid I. He is proclaimed caliph in Damascus, and his army closes in on al-Walid II and kills him, securing the caliphate for Yazid III. Unfortunately, Yazid III himself dies after just six months as caliph.

744

Yazid III

Son of al-Walid I.

744

Ibrahim

Brother. Deposed.

744 - 746

Ibrahim is Yazid III's nominated successor, but Marwan marches an army to Damascus where he is proclaimed caliph in December. He immediately moves the capital to the ancient town of Harran, and when a rebellion breaks out in Syria in 746, he burns down the walls of Hims and Damascus.

744 - 750

Marwan II

Grandson of Marwan I.

747 - 749

The Abbasids under Abu Muslim begin an open revolt in the Islamic Emirate of Khorasan against Umayyad rule. Khorasan quickly falls and an army is sent westwards. Kufa falls in 749 and in November the same year Abu al-Abbas is recognised as caliph. The Umayyads are overthrown and massacred in the revolution, with the survivors fleeing to Spain where they rule independently. This signals the end of the Arab empire.

Abbasid Caliphate
AD 750 - 1258

The capital of the Abbasid caliphate was in Baghdad. Following the overthrow and massacre of the Umayyads, the Abbasids never managed to assert their authority in Islamic Spain, but they did install loyal governors in Egypt. The equality of all Moslems was established at the same time.

750 - 754

Abdullah as Saffah (Abu al-Abbas)

751

The Battle of Talas. The T'ang Dynasty Chinese are defeated, but no further advance into Central Asia is made.

754 - 775

Abdullah al Mansur (Abu Jafar al-Mansur)

775 - 785

Muhammad al Mahdi

785 - 786

Musa al Hadi

786 - 809

Harun al Rashid

788

The Idrasids flee from the caliph and take control of Morocco.

800

The Aghlabid amirs of Tunisia and Algeria assume autonomous rule.

809 - 813

Muhammad al Amin

813 - 833

Abdullah al Ma'mun

821

The Tahirid emirs of Khurasan are granted a degree of autonomy. At around the same time the island of Cyprus is taken from the Byzantine empire.

833 - 842

Muhammad al Mu'tasim

Moved to Samarra with Turkish guard.

840

Venice claims victory against the empire at Lussino.

842 - 847

Harun al Watiq

847 - 861

Ja'far al Mutawakkil

Assassinated by Turkish guard.

861 - 862

Muhammad al Muntasir

862 - 866

Ahmad al Musta'in

866 - 869

Muhammad al Mutazz

867 - 868

In 867, the Saffarid emirs oust the Tahirids in Khorasan, while Venice defeats the empire at Taranto. The following year, the new Tulunid governor of Egypt assumes independent control there.

869 - 870

Muhammad al Muhtadi

870 - 892

Ahmad al Mutamid

Returned to Baghdad.

873

The Shia line of divinely-ordained supreme religious rulers, who are all related by blood to the Prophet, dies out.

877 - 878

Abbasid troops are sent against the Tulunids in Egypt because the ruling emir has failed to send enough tribute to Baghdad. Defeating them, the following year the emire invades and captures Palestine and Syria.

890

Benefiting from a well-trained army, a stable economy, and an efficient bureaucracy, the Tulunids are able to achieve further military gains, including the capture of areas of northern Iraq.

892 - 902

Ahmad al Mutadid

902 - 908

Ali Muktafi

905

Following an invasion of Tulunid Egypt, the Abbasids regain 'direct' control of the country on 10 January 905 and they maintain that control of it through their loyal Governors. until 935. Real power in Baghdad is held by their Turkish soldiers.

908

Jafar al Muqtadir

Held office for one day.

908 - 929

Jafar al Muqtadir

909 - 934

The Shiite (Sevener) Caliphate is established in Fatamid North Africa to rival the Orthodox Abbasid Caliphate.

929

Muhammad al Qahir

929 - 932

Jafar al Muqtadir

932 - 934

Muhammad al Qahir

934 - 940

Ahmad ar Radi

Loss of authority.

935

The governance of Egypt is passed to the Mamelukes, who rule with a certain level of independence, while in Baghdad the title amir al-umara (commander of the commanders) is created, and is taken by the real political power, the chief of the Turkish soldiers.

940 - 944

Ibrahim al Muttaqi

944 - 946

Adbullah al Mustakfi

(d.949)

945

The caliphate, including western Persia, falls under the Shi'ite Buwayid emirs of Iraq.

946 - 974

al Fadl al Muti

965 - 969

Cyprus is lost to the Byzantine empire in 965, and Antioch in Syria in 969, while the Fatimids of North Africa seize Mameluke Egypt in the same year.

974 - 991

AdulKarim atTa'I

991 - 1031

Ahmad al Qadir

1002

Venice achieves victory over the Islamic empire at Bari.

1031 - 1075

Abdullah al Qa'im

1055

The caliph is under Persian Seljuq control after the Buwayid amirs are defeated. He grants title of sultan to the Seljuq ruler.

1075 - 1094

Abdullah al Muqtadi

1094 - 1118

Ahmad al Mustazhir

1095 - 1099

Pope Urban II proclaims the First Crusade to reclaim sacred Christian sites from Islamic hands. Starting from 1096, the First Crusade defeats the Seljuqs, and captures Jerusalem, and large swathes of Middle Eastern territories.

1118 - 1135

al Fadl al Mustarshid

1135 - 1136

al Mansur ar Rashid

1136 - 1160

Muhammad al Muqtafi

1160 - 1170

Yusuf al Mustanjid

1169

The new governor of Egypt is Salah al-Din, who quickly becomes the main opponent of the Crusaders in Jerusalem.

1170 - 1180

al Hasan al Mustadi

1180 - 1225

Ahmad an Nasir

1194

The Caliphate gains independence from the Seljuqs.

1225 - 1226

Muhammad az Zahir

1226 - 1242

al Mansur al Mustansir

1242 - 1258

Abdullah al Musta'sim

Killed by Il-Khan Mongol Khan Hulagu.

1258

The death of Abdullah al Musta'sim signals the end of the Abbasid caliphate. The Mamelukes set up the Abbasid puppet caliphate in Egypt which continues until the Ottoman conquest. Control of the Islamic empire eventually falls to the Ottoman Turks, who govern from Asia Minor.