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Khorasan / Khwarazm (Transoxiana / Sogdia / Sogdiana)
An ancient region, this was the home to one of the oldest series of states in Central Asia and was situated in and around the
river basin of the lower Amu Darya where it empties into the Aral Sea, and
north-eastern Persia.
Its territory varied greatly depending who was ruling it,
but at its height it stretched into most of
Afghanistan,
eastern Persia, central Turkmenistan
and southern Kyrgyzstan, plus central and southern Uzbekistan and all of Tajikistan
(which together made up ancient Transoxiana). The name now belongs to a province in
modern
Iran
and a region in north-western
Uzbekistan.
Transoxiana, the crossroads between Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle
East, was located around the southern coast of the Aral Sea, and in the
cities of Bukhara and Samarkand. The earliest known rulers in the region, when it was known as Sogdia or Sogdiana,
to differentiate it from bordering
Bactria, are placed in the 600s BC, shortly before the warlike tribe of the
Massagetae
were recorded as bordering the area to the north in 530 BC. Then it was
conquered by the
Persians, and for the most part remained governed from
there until the tenth century AD.
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7th cent BC |
Sijavus
/ Siyavash |
Son of Kai Kavoos of
Persia,
and son-in-law of Afrasiab. |
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Sijavus is a legendary
Persian
prince and the son-in-law of the mythical Afrasiab, the hero and king of
Turan. Turan is the ancient Iranian name for Central Asia, 'land of the Tur',
which is inhabited by Iranian peoples. Due to the treachery of his
stepmother, Sudabeh, Sijavus exiles himself to Turan. There, he marries
Farangis, the daughter of Afrasiab, but the king later orders Sijavus to be
killed. His death is avenged by his son, who inherits the early
Persian
throne. |
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c.550 - 330 BC |
The
heartland of the region (known as Sogdia) is drawn into Cyrus the Great's
Persian empire. It is also named Huvarazmish in Persian inscriptions. In 330 BC it becomes part of the
Greek empire. |
323 - 321? BC |
Philip / Philippus |
Greek satrap of Khorasan /
Bactria & Sogdiana. |
321 - 312 BC |
Stasanor the Solian |
Greek satrap of
Indo-Greek territory & Khorasan (316 BC). |
316 - 312 BC |
Sogdiana is governed by the
Argead satrap, Stasanor the Solian, for the
Greek empire. |
312 - c.140 BC |
During the break-up of the empire, it appears that parts of the
area become independent, but much of it falls to the kings of
Bactria. |
140 BC |
After Bactria's destruction, the region is later inhabited by Zoroastrian
Indians who use
Aramaic script. Sogdiana is for the most part independent. |
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AD 552 |
The
Western Kaghans expand
their dominion towards Sogdiana and right up to the borders of the Islamic
Emirate
of Khorasan. |
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651 - 821 |
The region is absorbed into the
Islamic
empire as it takes
Persia. Governors, or emirs, are appointed to control Islamic
Emirate
of Khorasan in the name of the caliph. |
821 - 873 |
The
Tahrid
emirs are established in Khorasan, which includes northern and western
Afghanistan up to the borders of the kingdom of
Zabulistan, when the region is granted to them by the
Abbasid
caliph, al-Mamun. |
873 - 900 |
The
Tahrids
are ousted as emirs of Khorasan by the
Saffarids, but in 900 they are defeated by the Transoxianan
Samanids
and
reduced in territory to Seistan in
Persia,
where they remain Samanid vassals.
The Samanids install their own governors in Khorasan. |
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994 |
The
Samanid
ruler faces internal uprisings, and the
Ghaznavid
ruler goes to his assistance. The rebels are defeated at Balkh and then
Nishapur, and Sebuktigin of Ghazni is granted the title 'Nasir ud-Din'
('Hero of the Faith'), while his son, Mahmud, is made governor of Khorasan. |
994 - 998 |
Yamin-ud-Dawlah Mahmud |
Governor. Son of Sebuktigin of Ghazni.
King of Ghazni (998-1030). |
995 |
The
previous ruling Banu Iraq dynasty is overthrown in a coup. Areas of Khorasan
are united under the emirs of
North Khwarazm, who gain a level of autonomy
from the weak Persian Buwayids. |
997 |
Mahmud campaigns against the
Qara-Khitai
in Central Asia, but is ultimately defeated. The following year he lays
successful claim to the
Ghaznavid
throne itself. |
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Emirs of North Khwarazm / Khorezm / Khorasan
AD 995 - 1390s?
Always under the influence of
Persia,
if not its direct control, Khwarazm was initially centred on ancient
Samarkand and Bukhara. At its height, it extended to encompass
almost all of modern
Iran
(except the western border area), eastern Azerbaijan, western
Afghanistan,
all of Turkmenistan, most of
Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and the southern areas of
Kazakhstan.
The emirs (and later, shahs) had their capital at Urgench (pronounced oorgyench),
now Kunya-Urgench, the capital of
Uzbekistan. The city became a major seat of Arabic learning and a centre of
agriculture and trade, but it was destroyed by the
Mongols in the early
thirteenth century, partially rebuilt, and then abandoned in the sixteenth
century, following the
Uzbek conquest of the region. |
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1017 - 1040 |
Khwarazm is conquered by the
Ghaznavids
after the emir is killed in a rebellion, but it is unclear if the entire
emirate is subjugated.
In 1040 the Ghaznavids are defeated by
Seljuq Turks at Dandanqan, and lose their western territories,
including Khwarazm. |
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1098 - 1128 |
Qutb al-Din Muhammed |
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1128 - 1156 |
Ala al-Din Aziz / Shah Atsyz |
Rebelled against the
Seljuqs.
Defeated & returned to vassal status. |
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1156 - 1172 |
Taj al-Dunya Arslan |
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1172 - 1193 |
Jalal al-Dunya Sultanshah |
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1193 - 1200 |
Ala al-Din Tekish / Tukush / Tekesh |
Former Seljuq slave appointed
governor of Khwarazm. |
1194 |
The
emirate gains
independence from the Persian
Seljuq
Turks by overthrowing them and occupying much of the rest of Khorasan. |
1200 - 1220 |
Ala ad Deen Muhammed (ibn Tekesh) |
Son. Died a fugitive. |
1205 - 1212 |
Khwarazm
rapidly expands its rule. In 1210 it takes Samarkand from the
Qara-Khitai
and this becomes the capital. By 1212 it rules from the Caspian
Sea to Bukhara and Samarkand, eliminating the Qara Khitai and
controlling all of modern
Iran and,
by 1213, Ghurid Afghanistan too. |
1220 - 1221 |
After
the shah decapitates the Mongol
ambassador from Chingiz Khan, the
emirate is attacked twice
by Chingiz Khan and the Golden Horde, along with Ghurid Afghanistan, and is reduced to its western section
covering northern Mesopotamia and western Persia. However, it survives, and
even profits from the Mongol
control of the caravan trade. |
1220 - 1231 |
Jalal al-Din Mingburnu |
Son. |
1231 |
The reduced
shahdom has been flourishing for a decade since losing its eastern
territory, and has even conquered
Georgia and Azerbaijan, but
now it is completely overrun by a renewed Mongol invasion.
Control of the shahdom is inherited by the Il-Khans
in Persia. Elements of forces from Khwarazm migrate to Syria where they
engage in the battles against the Crusaders in
Jerusalem,
but also in politics against the Ayyubids In
Damascus
and
Egypt. |
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1244 - 1245 |
The forces of Khwarazm sack Christian
Jerusalem,
and later in the same year Sultan as Salih II Ayyub of
Egypt allies himself with the former emirate against Ismail of
Damascus.
At the Battle of La Forbie, they defeat Ismail and Ayyub is able to reclaim
the sultanate for himself. The following year, Ayyub defeats
Khwarazm itself for failing to recognise him as its overlord. |
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1363 - 1370 |
Khorasan and large areas of Transoxiana are conquered by degrees from 1363
by Timur, who creates his own
Timurid dynasty in Persia and Transoxiana, and removes the
Chaghatayid khans of Mughulistan
from any effective control. |
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Timurid Transoxiana (in Samarkand)
AD 1369 - 1500
From 1363, Timur began to conquer large areas of Transoxiana and Khorasan, supposedly in the name of the
Chaghatayid
khans of Mughulistan. Samarkand fell in 1366, and
Herat (in the west of modern
Afghanistan)
by 1381. Timur was recognised as the region's ruler in 1370. In 1405,
the Timurid empire split in two, with the western,
Persian, portion being ruled from Herat in southern
Khorasan while the eastern portion was
governed from Samarkand (technically also in what was known as Greater
Khorasan, but the regional name of Transoxiana is usually used to
distinguish the two Timurid divisions). |
1390s |
Khwarazm
and its vast irrigation system is destroyed by Timur. |
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1405 |
After Timur's death, none of the
Timurid
royalty accepts his successor. Timur's viceroy in Farghana asserts his own
independence and rules from Samarkand as if he is the new ruler of the empire. |
1405 - 1409 |
Khalil
Sultan |
In Transoxiana.
Former viceroy of Farghana. Died 1411. |
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1409 |
Unpopular with the people and only supported by his father and brother in
Azerbaijan, Khalil Sultan's reign ends when Shah Rukh enters the city on 13
May. Shah Rukh gives Transoxiana and Khorasan to his son as viceroy while he
rules the reunited
Timurid empire from
Herat. Khalil Sultan is given governorship of Ray, where he dies in
1411. |
1409 - 1449 |
Ulugh Beg |
Son of Shah Rukh.
Viceroy, and
Timurid ruler (1447-1449). |
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1449 |
Ulugh Beg's death at the hands of his son, Abd al Latîf, leaves a power
vacuum which is filled in central
Persia by Sultan Muhammad, while Abd al Latîf rules in Samarkand, now
one of three Timurid claimants to overall control (the third being in Herat
in southern
Khorasan). |
1449 - 1450 |
Abd al Latîf |
Son. In
Transoxiana. |
1450 - 1451 |
Abdallah /
Abdullah |
Son of Ibrahim of southern
Khorasan. In Transoxiana. Executed. |
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1450 - 1451 |
Abu Sa'id, nephew of Ulugh Beg, is one of the claimants for the
Timurid crown, along with Abdallah, who seizes Samarkand in 1450. After
failures in Samarkand and Bukhara, Abu Sa'id conquers much of
Shaibanid Turkestan in 1450,
and in June 1451 takes Samarkand with the aid of the Shaibanid Uzbeks. |
1451 - 1469 |
Sultan Abu Sa'id
Gurgan |
In Transoxiana &
Khorasan (and later in
Persia too). Executed. |
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1454 |
Babur Ibn-Baysunkur invades Transoxiana from
Khorasan in retaliation for Abu Sa'id's seizure of Balkh (now in
northern
Afghanistan). The two Timurid rulers agree a border on the River Oxus,
which remains in force for the remainder of Babur's lifetime. |
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1457 |
Abu Sa'id has Queen Goharshad, the power behind the
Timurid throne, executed on 19 July. |
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1457 - 1459 |
While southern
Khorasan is locked in a power struggle, Abu Sa'id invades. Balkh is
occupied but he is unable to take Herat until a
Black
Sheep invasion defeats the ruler, Ibrahim and then withdraws. Khorasan
is taken by Abu Sa'ad, reuniting the remaining Timurid provinces. An attempt
by Ibrahim to unite with another Timurid prince, Sultan Sanjar is defeated
at the Battle of Sarakhs in March 1459. Sanjar is executed. Ibrahim dies in
1460, and 'Ala' al-Daula dies in 1461, ending all opposition to a sole
Timurid ruler in Transoxiana. |
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1461 |
Abu Sa'id completes his conquest of much of Khorasan and eastern Iran,
agreeing with the
Black
Sheep emir, Jahan Shah, to divide Iran between the two of them. |
1467 - 1469 |
Following the death of the
Black
Sheep emir at the hands of the
White Sheep
emir, his son is supported by
Abu Sa'id. However, in 1468, the Black Sheep emirate is conquered, and the
following year
Abu Sa'id is captured in the Azerbaijan mountains on campaign against the
White Sheep emirate, and is subsequently executed. The Timurid rule of
Transoxiana and
Khorasan again fractures. A weakened Transoxiana is now watched over
with interest by the growing power of the
Shaibanid Uzbeks to the
north, especially as it is now sub-divided into Samarkand, Badakshan, and
Farghana by Abu Sa'id's sons. |
1469 - 1494 |
Sultan Ahmad |
In Transoxiana. |
1494 - 1495 |
Sultan Mahmud |
Brother. In Transoxiana. |
1495 - 1500 |
Sultan Baysonqur
/ Baysunqr |
In Transoxiana. |
1495 - 1500 |
Masud |
In Transoxiana. |
1495 - 1500 |
Sultan Ali Murza
/ Mirza |
In Farghana. |
1494 |
Far to the east of Khorasan, the
Bengal sultan, Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah, is
assassinated by his wazzir, Alauddin Husain Shah, the son of the
Afghan
Sharif of Makka in Khorasan. Husain is subsequently elected shah by the
leading nobles. |
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1495 - 1504 |
Babur |
Son. In Farghana (Uzbekistan).
Expelled by
Shaibanid
conquest. |
1500 - 1507 |
The
Timurids
are overthrown by the
Shaibanids, who conquer Transoxiana and now threaten
Khorasan. The remnants of
Khwarazm become an independent Muslim Uzbek state, known as the
khanate of
Khiva. The Timurid prince,
Babur of Farghana makes many attempts to recapture Samarkand from Khorasan,
without success. |
1511 |
Following the death of the
Shaibanid ruler, Babur is able to recapture Samarkand with
Safavid Persian help
from his base in
Kabul,
but is unable to retain it. The
Shaibanids re-conquer the city just eight months later. |
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Khanate of Khiva
c.AD 1511 - 1924
An independent Uzbek state, the capital was at Khiva. Originally an evolution
of Khwarazm, by the mid-sixteenth century it was entirely Muslim Uzbek. It
flourished in the early nineteenth century until Russian ambitions ended
its independence. |
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1598 |
From
this point, Khiva gradually takes over the former
Özbeg
empire in Samarkand. |
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1750 |
Southern Khorasan is officially renamed Afghanistan by the
Durrani dynasty. |
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1865 |
Russia
takes Bukhara, Tashkent, and Samarkand (all of which go into forming
Uzbekistan in 1924). |
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1873 - 1878 |
Khiva
is conquered
by Russia. The khans
continue to rule under Russian 'protection'. |
1878 |
Russia
annexes the khanate. |
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1920 - 1924 |
Under
the imposition of communism in
Russia,
the territory
now comprises the Kwarazem / Khorezm Soviet People's Republic. |
1924 |
Khiva
is divided between the Uzbek SSR and
Turkmen SSR. |
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Modern Turkmenistan
AD 1924 - Present Day
Modern Turkmenistan is made up mainly of desert, and has the smallest
population of the five Central Asian ex-Soviet
republics. Its western border lies on the Caspian Sea. To the north it
almost reaches the Aral Sea and is mainly bordered by
Uzbekistan, while
Iran
and
Afghanistan fill its southern and south-eastern borders.
The Black Desert region, or Karakum, was home for a while to
Indo-European
tribes from further north in Central Asia in the third millennium BC. Living
here in vast mud-brick fortress citadels, herding cattle, and worshiping
fire in rituals controlled by an early form of Brahmin, they also
domesticated and worshipped the horse. They were forced southwards by
climate change between about 2000-1500 BC, and re-emerged in
India as the Aryans who created
the first documented states there.
Eastern Turkmenistan once formed part of the
Persian satrapy of
Bactria,
which was invaded by Alexander the Great's
Greek empire, and which became independent in 256 BC. Following that the
region was occupied by Indo-Scythians and Tocharians, and was controlled by
the Kushans
and then the Persian
Sassanids. From the end of the tenth century AD it was part of the
emirate of North Khwarazm,
Timurid Transoxiana, and
then part of the region of Turkestan which was ruled by the
Shaibanid empire in the
sixteenth century. |
1924 |
The Soviet-controlled Turkmen SSR
is formed by dividing the former khanate of
Khiva. |
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1991 |
Turkmen SSR achieves independence as the Soviet
empire collapses. |
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Modern Uzbekistan
AD 1924 - Present Day
Positioned on the ancient Silk Road between Europe and Asia, majestic cities
such as Bukhara and Samarkand, famed for their architectural opulence, once
flourished here as trade and cultural centres. With its capital at Kunya-Urgench,
modern Uzbekistan is the most
populous Central Asian state with the largest armed forces. Kazakhstan lies
to the north, Turkmenistan
is to the south, and Tajikistan and
Afghanistan lie to the east and
south-east.
Southern Uzbekistan once formed part of the
Persian satrapy of
Bactria,
which was invaded by Alexander the Great's
Greek empire, and which became independent in 256 BC. Following that the
region was occupied by Indo-Scythians and Tocharians, and was controlled by
the Kushans
and then the Persian
Sassanids. From the end of the tenth century AD it was part of the
emirate of North Khwarazm,
Timurid Transoxiana, and
then part of the region of Turkestan which was ruled by the
Shaibanid empire in the
sixteenth century. |
1924 |
The Soviet-controlled
Uzbek SSR is formed by dividing the former khanate of
Khiva and incorporating the
emirate of Bukhara. |
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1991 |
Uzbek SSR achieves independence as the Soviet
empire collapses. |
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