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Islamic Syria
A region with a history of settlements which stretches back to the earliest
days of civilisation, ancient Syria
was a patchwork of city states. Many, or even most, of these were subsumed
at one point or another within larger empires, such as the kingdom of
Upper Mesopotamia,
the Hittites, the
Mitanni,
Egypt,
Assyria,
neo-Babylonia, the
Persians, the
Greek empire and its descended forms, and then the
Roman
empire, which held onto it until the seventh century AD. Then the entire region
was conquered by the Islamic empire,
between 638 and 640 under Khaled ibn al-Walid. Later in the same century,
the Umayyads moved the capital of the empire to the ancient city of
Damascus, making it the centre
of Islamic power.
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634 |
The Islamic
invasion of the
Eastern Roman region of Syria begins in 634, with Arab troops emerging
into the Levant from the southern deserts, surprising the Byzantine forces
which are stationed along the regular line of defence facing the
Persians.
Between then and 638, several battles are fought across the region until the
Byzantines have been forced northwards. Syria quickly becomes the centre of the
growing empire. |
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Islamic Governors of Syria
AD 635 - 750
Khalid ibn al-Walid was one of Muhammad's most able companions and generals.
He led the conquest of Arabia in 632-634, making it the heart of the growing
Islamic
empire. This was followed by the invasion of the
Persian empire in
633, and the invasion of
Eastern Roman Syria from June 634. Avoiding Roman forts in eastern
Syria, he took his force through the northern edge of the Syrian Desert,
traditionally taking two days to complete the march without a drop of water.
Then he attacked the Romans, capturing several border forts, at Arak,
Palmyra, al-Sukhnah and Sawa.
Next to fall was Bosra, the capital of the
vassal Ghassanid kingdom, although not without a good deal of fighting. On
30 July 634, the Romans fought the Arabs at the Battle of Ajnadayn, and
defeat for the defenders left Syria in a precarious position. The Syrian
capital of Damascus was Khalid's next target, and despite the Roman
defences, it fell on 18 September 634 after a siege lasting about thirty
days, although some sources state it was much longer. Caliph Abu Bakr died
during the siege, but central Syria had been taken, and the south would soon
fall.
|
635 - 636 |
Khalid ibn al-Walid |
First Islamic emir of Syria.
A companion of Muhammad. |
635 - 636 |
Khalid ibn al-Walid remains in command of the conquered areas of Syria while
the fighting against the
Eastern Roman empire is ongoing and the Levant is also being conquered.
The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 seals the fate of the Romans in the Levant, as
they suffer a defeat that is so tremendous that it leaves them unable to
recover for some considerable time.
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The Umayyad Great Mosque in Damascus was built between 706-715
on the site of the Basilica of St John, which itself had been
converted from the Temple of Jupiter
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636 - 637 |
Abu
Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah |
A companion of Muhammad. Died of plague. |
637 - 640 |
Amr
ibn al-Aas |
Led the conquest of
Egypt
in 640. |
640 |
Yazid
ibn Abi Sufyan |
One of the leaders of the invasion of Syria. Died of
plague. |
640 - 661 |
Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan |
Brother. Later
Umayyad caliph (661-680). |
658 |
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the adopted son of
Rashidun
Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, had been appointed governor of
Egypt.
However, Muawiyah I (soon to be the first
Umayyad caliph), sends
his general, Amr ibn al-As and six thousand troops to take control. Ibn Abi
Bakr is easily defeated, and is captured and killed. |
661 - 680 |
Muawiyah I ibn Abu Sufyan |
Simultaneously
Umayyad caliph and governor of Syria. |
674 - 677 |
The capital
of the Islamic empire moves to
Damascus and an Arab aristocratic government is established there. Syria is
divided into four districts: Damascus, Homs, Jordan, and
Palestine. From
this point forwards, the caliph retains the title of governor of Syria,
controlling it directly. |
680 - 683 |
Yazid
I ibn Muawiyah |
Son.
Umayyad caliph. |
683 - 684 |
Upon the death of Yazid, his son becomes Caliph Mu'awiya II, but he seems
not to be accepted outside Syria. Abd-Allah
ibn al-Zubayr renews his own claim, gathering supporters from the many who
are dissatisfied with
Umayyad rule. Civil war breaks out, but a rival
faction under Marwan quickly proves to be superior, conquering
Egypt and
the renegade areas of Syria that have sided with the opposition. Ibn Zubayr
is finally killed in 692 in battle against Abd al Malik. |
683 - 684 |
Muawiya II ibn Yazid |
Son.
Umayyad caliph. |
684 - 685 |
Marwan I ibn Hakam |
Umayyad caliph. |
685 - 705 |
Abd
al-Malik ibn Marwan |
Son.
Umayyad caliph. |
705 - 715 |
al-Walid
I ibn Abd al-Malik |
Son.
Umayyad caliph. |
715 - 717 |
Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik |
Brother.
Umayyad caliph. |
717 - 720 |
Umar
ibn Abd al-Aziz |
Cousin.
Umayyad caliph. |
720 - 724 |
Yazid
II ibn Abd al-Malik |
Son of Abd al Malik.
Umayyad caliph. |
724 - 743 |
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik |
Brother.
Umayyad caliph. |
743 - 744 |
al-Walid
II ibn Yazid II |
Son of Yazid II. Killed.
Umayyad caliph. |
744 |
Yazid
III is a son of al-Walid I. He is proclaimed caliph in Damascus, and his
army closes in on al-Walid II and kills him, securing the
Umayyad caliphate for Yazid III. Unfortunately, Yazid III himself dies after just six months as
caliph. |
744 |
Yazid
III ibn al-Walid |
Son of al-Walid I.
Umayyad caliph. |
744 |
Ibrahim ibn al-Walid |
Brother.
Umayyad caliph. |
744 - 746 |
Ibrahim is Yazid III's nominated successor, but
Marwan marches an army to Damascus where he is proclaimed
Umayyad caliph in
December. He immediately moves the capital to the ancient town of
Harran, and when a
rebellion breaks out in Syria
in 746, he burns down the walls of Hims and Damascus. |
744 - 750 |
Marwan II ibn Muhammad |
In Harran. Grandson of Marwan I. Last
Umayyad governor. |
747 - 749 |
The
Abbasids under Abu Muslim
begin an open revolt in the Islamic emirate of
Khorasan
against Umayyad rule.
Khorasan quickly falls and an army is sent westwards. Kufa falls in 749
and in November the same year Abu al-Abbas is recognised as caliph. The
Umayyads are overthrown and massacred in the revolution, with the survivors
fleeing to Spain
where they rule independently. Caliph Marwan flees to
Egypt,
where he is captured and killed. This signals the end of the Arab empire. |
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Abbasid Governors of Syria
AD 750 - 935
Abdallah ibn Ali and his brother, Saleh, were at the forefront of the
Abbasid
overthrow and massacre of the
Umayyad caliphs in 750.
The uprising against Umayyad authority began in
Khorasan,
and quickly spread westwards, with Abu al-Abbas being recognised as the
first Abbasid caliph in 749 while his rivals were massacred. Abdallah
briefly became Syria's first Abbasid wali (governor) but was quickly
succeeded by his brother, who also exercised authority in
Egypt
in two periods.
The capital of the Abbasid caliphate was in Baghdad rather than Damascus, so
Syria's governors had more independence than previously, and more scope for
overthrowing rival governors and ruling their provinces. Records of
governors for this period are relatively poor, with frequent gaps. |
750 - 753 |
Abdallah ibn Ali ibn Abdullah |
First
Abbasid
wali of Syria. |
753 |
Saleh ibn Ali ibn Abdullah / Salih |
Brother. Wali of
Egypt
(750, 753-755) &
Palestine
(751-753). |
754 - 755 |
Saleh ibn Ali ibn Abdullah, wali of
Egypt and then
Palestine, is the
uncle of Abbasid
Caliph Abdullah as Saffah, but the caliph dies in 754. Saleh's brother,
Abdallah, launches a revolt in Syria against the new caliph, claiming that
he himself is the rightful successor. Saleh refuses to join his brother's
revolt. Instead he enters Syria to help suppress it, defeating Abdallah's governor of
Palestine, al-Hakam ibn Da'ban. Abdallah is also defeated and is forced
to submit to the new caliph. Saleh's family are firmly entrenched as
governors, with three of his sons controlling Syria over the next half a
century, starting with Al-Fadl ibn Saleh in 766.
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Two sides of a typical Abbasid-era coin, with this one being
nineteen millimetres in diameter issued in Samarkand
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754 - 764 |
Abd al-Bahhab ibn Ibrahim al-Abbasi |
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? |
Name unknown. |
766 - 775 |
Al-Fadl ibn Saleh ibn Ali al-Abbassi |
Gained Aleppo
(769). Wali of al-Jazira (775-780), &
Egypt
(785). |
769 - 775 |
Al-Fadl ibn Saleh gains the Jund Qinnasrin and its capital at
Aleppo in 769,
adding it to his domains. In 775,
Abbasid
Caliph al-Mahdi commands him to take the post of wali of al-Jazira, which
lies to the north of Damascus (he is deposed around 780, and is sent to
quell a rebellion in
Egypt
in 785). |
|
? |
Name unknown. |
783 - 786 |
Abu Ja'far Harun al-Rashid |
Became
Abbasid
Caliph (786-809). |
|
? |
Name unknown. |
791 - 793 |
Ibrahim as-Salih |
Brother of Al-Fadl. Wali of
Egypt
(781-784). |
793 - 794 |
Musa ibn Yahya al-Barmaki |
|
794 - 795 |
Abd al-Malik ibn Salih |
Brother of Ibrahim as-Salih. Became wali of
Egypt (795). |
794 - 795 |
Abd al-Malik ibn Salih had been governor of the strategically critical jund
Qinnasrin (c.789-793) and then of the newly-formed jund of al-'Awasim, which
comprises the caliphate's border with the
Byzantine empire. Following his appointment as governor of Damascus, he
also serves briefly in Medina and
Egypt,
before returning to the Byzantine frontier. |
795 - 797 |
? |
Name unknown. Some records show Abd al-Malik still in
office. |
797 - 803 |
Ja'far ibn Yahya |
Brother of Musa ibn Yahya al-Barmaki (793). Beheaded. |
803 - 804 |
Shuyat ibn Hadim |
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? |
Name unknown. |
808 - 810 |
Yahya ibn Muad |
|
810 - 811 |
Abd al-Malik ibn Salih |
|
811 - 815 |
Sulayman ibn al-Mansur |
|
815 - 821 |
Tahir ibn al-Hussein |
Became emir of
Khorasan
(821-822). |
821 |
The eastern province which includes
Persia and
Khorasan
has lost Transoxiana to the
Samanids, so
Abbasid
Caliph al-Mamun appoints Tahir ibn al-Hussein, the successful commander of
the campaign that had defeated the caliph's main rival, as the new governor,
beginning the Tahirid period of rule in the east. Tahir effectively declares
independence in his new domains by failing to mention the caliph during a
sermon at Friday prayers in 822. |
821 - 822 |
Abdullah
ibn Tahir |
Son. Wali of
Egypt
(826-827) & emir of
Khorasan
(828-845). |
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? |
Name unknown. |
828 - 829 |
Abu Ishaq Muhammad al-Mu'tasim |
Became
Abbasid
Caliph (833-842). |
829 - 833 |
al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun |
Son of
Abbasid
Caliph Abdullah al Ma'mun. Died 838. |
832 - 833 |
Abbasid
Caliph Ma'mun follows up on a recent minor success against the
Byzantine
empire by capturing the strategically important fortress of Loulon. A large
army is collected together with the intent of conquering Anatolia piecemeal.
The caliph's general, al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun, wali of Syria, marches into
Byzantine territory on 25 May 833, creating a military base at Tyana. The
caliph's main force follows in July, just as the caliph himself becomes ill
and dies unexpectedly. The invasion is abandoned and al-Abbas is soon
arrested for potential involvement in a coup to remove the new caliph. He
dies in prison. |
833 - 841 |
'Ali ibn Ishaq |
|
841 - 847 |
Rija ibn Ayyub al-Hadari |
|
847 - 850 |
Malik ibn Sauq al-Taglibi |
|
850 - 855 |
Ibrahim al-Muyad ibn Mutawakkil |
|
856 - 861 |
al-Fath ibn Hakan al-Turki |
|
861 - 864 |
'Isa ibn Muhammad ibn al-Shayh |
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? |
Name unknown. |
871 - 872 |
Amajur |
|
872 - 877 |
Abu Ahmad Talha al-Muwaffak
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877 - 896 |
Abbasid troops are sent against Ahmed ibn-Tuluh, wali of
Egypt,
because he has failed to send enough tribute to Baghdad. Defeating them,
the following year he invades and captures
Palestine
and Syria, ruling them directly.
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The tomb in Cairo of Ahmed ibn-Tuluh, one of only two strong
rulers in the Tulunid period
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896 |
Tughj ibn Jauf |
|
896 - 933 |
Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Tughj al-Ikhshid
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Son. Took control of
Egypt in 935. |
905 |
The Tulunids in
Egypt
are weakened by this stage following years of mismanagement of the country.
Egypt is invaded and Wali Shayban retreats to Fustat where he surrenders on
10 January 905. The Tulunid dynasty of governors and semi-independent rulers
is ended and loyal and obedient
Abbasid
governors are installed. |
909 |
Islamic
rule over Syria fragments, with independent rulers emerging in several
areas. In Africa, the
Aghlabids
have by now lost all prestige in the eyes of their people, so Ifriqiyya
is conquered by the
Fatimids, who quickly also conquer
Morocco,
Algeria, and
later even
Arabia. |
933 - 935 |
Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Kaigaliq |
Last
Abbasid
governor of Syria. |
935 - 943 |
Abbasid control of
Egypt
proves to be short-lived when the country falls under the control of the
Mameluke
dynasty of Turkic governors who are allowed to rule in a semi-independent
manner. From 935, under the Turkic slave soldier, Muhammad ibn Tughj al
Ikhshid (former wali of Syria in 896-933), Egypt also gains control of
Palestine
and Syria, and Damascus is ruled directly until 943. Then it is governed by
the Hamdanids of
Aleppo
under Ali I Sayfud Dawla. |
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Hamdanid Emirs of Damascus
AD 943 - 946
The Hamdanids were a dynasty of Shia Muslims who emerged
in the Al-Jazirah region in the late ninth century under Hamdan ibn Hamdun.
They expanded from an initial governorship in Mardin to become emirs of
Aleppo, Mosul and
Baghdad by 914. Dominating regions of northern Mesopotamia and Syria, they
briefly gained southern Syria from the
Ikhshidids
of Egypt. Emir Sayfud Dawla became a celebrated foe of the
Byzantines, but he was
largely unsuccessful against the revival of Eastern Roman power, and his son experienced
devastating defeats, at one point with Aleppo and Homs themselves falling. |
943 - 945 |
Muhammad ibn Yazdad al-Shahrzuri
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945 |
Ali I Sayfud Dawla
/ 'Saif al-Duala' |
Emir of Aleppo. |
945 - 946 |
Muhammad ibn Raik |
|
946 |
Ali I Sayfud Dawla
/ 'Saif al-Duala' |
Emir of Aleppo. |
946 - 947 |
Sayfud Dawla eyes a much bigger prize than Aleppo.
He wins the support of the local tribe of the Banu Kilab and seizes Aleppo,
presumably as a domain of his own rather than a governorship. The following
year he attacks and seizes Damascus, despite being rebuffed twice by the
Ikhshidids.
He also manages to advance as far as Ramla in Syria (now in
Israel), but
thereafter is forced to agree peace terms with the Ikhshidids.
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The citadel at Aleppo made it a powerful fortress that the
Ikhshidids could not take
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947 - 969 |
Damascus is ruled directly by the
Ikhshidites
of Egypt, although the region is undergoing a period of instability. A
Qarmatian raid takes place in 968, although the level of damage to Damascus
is not known, and there is increasing pressure from the
Fatamids
in Tunisia and the Hamdanids in Aleppo.
In 969, Antioch is lost to the
Byzantine
empire, taken by Michael Bourtzes and Peter the Eunuch on behalf of Emperor
Nikephoros II Phokas. The city becomes the seat of a doux who
commands the forces of the local themes which are vital for holding onto
this eastern border region. In the same year the Fatamids occupy
Egypt
and gain much of Syria along with it. |
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Fatamid Emirs of Damascus
AD 969 - 1076
The
Fatamids
rose to power in Tunisia in 909, overthrowing the discredited
Aghlabids
and conquering Ifriqiyya. They first invaded
Abbasid
Egypt
in 914, and were only forced back out by several waves of reinforcements
sent from Baghdad. By 969 they were strong enough to re-invade Egypt and
this time they were not to be stopped. The caliphate was removed to alQahirah
(Cairo), and areas of Syria were taken at the same time, notably the city of
Damascus. This received its own Fatamid governors from 969, and they opposed
the Hamdanids at
Aleppo to the north. The Shia Fatamids also managed to
inflame the predominant Sunni Arabs of Syria, resulting in frequent
uprisings. |
969 - 971 |
Abu Ali Jafar ibn Fallah al-Katami |
|
971 - 973 |
? |
Unknown emir(s). |
972 - 977 |
A
Sunni Turk named Alp Takin (Alp Tegin) drives the
Fatamids
out of Damascus and holds it for five years, negotiating with the
Byzantines
to prevent them from sweeping in to take over.
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A Fatamid dinar, minted in Egypt in 970, which expresses the
dynasty's Shi'ite beliefs in opposition to the Sunni Abbasid
caliphs in Baghdad
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973 - 974 |
Zalim inbn Mauhab al-Ukayli |
Fought Alp Tegin to retain Damascus? |
974 |
Jaysh ibn Muhammad |
Fought Alp Tegin to retain Damascus? |
974 |
Rayn al-Muizzi |
Fought Alp Tegin to retain Damascus? |
974 - 977 |
Alp Tegin al-Muizzi |
Sunni Turk who seized Damascus. |
977 |
Fatamid Caliph al Aziz
manages to regain control of Damascus and tame the dissident Sunnis. A new
governor is installed and the city settles down to a relatively peaceful
period. |
977 - 983 |
Qassam al-Turab |
Fatamid governor restored to Damascus. |
983 |
Bal Tegin al-Turki |
|
983 - 991 |
Bakjur |
|
985 |
The
Arab geographer, al-Muqaddasi, visits Damascus. According to his notes about
the city, its architecture is still magnificent and the infrastructure is
still in good order, but the living conditions for the majority of the
ordinary citizens are fairly poor. The records are also poor, with there
seeming to be a break in the governorship between 991-993. |
991 |
Munir al-Hadim |
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993 - 996 |
Magu Tegin / Mangutakin |
Defeated while attempting to take
Egypt
in support of Barjawan. |
996 - 998 |
The
period of relative stability enjoyed by Damascus since the city's recapture
in 977 now comes to an end with the death of
Fatamid Caliph al Aziz and the succession of al Hakim. Magu Tegin is
abandoned by his own ally while attempting to enter
Egypt
in support of Barjawan and his seizure of the post of vizier. Just two years
later, hundreds of senior figures in Damascus are rounded up and executed
for incitement. |
996 |
Sulayman ibn Fallah |
A Berber. |
997 - 998 |
Bishara al-Ikhshidi |
|
998 - 1000 |
Jaysh ibn Muhammad |
|
1000 - 1002 |
Sulayman ibn Fallah |
Restored to office. |
1002 - 1004 |
Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Jafar |
|
1003 - 1004 |
To
help prevent the
Byzantine
conquest of a weakened
Aleppo, the Hamdanids
place it under the suzerainty of the
Fatamids
of Tunisia and
Egypt.
The Fatamids subsequently depose the Hamdanids for their efforts. |
1004 - 1009 |
Abu Salih Muflih al-Lihyani |
|
1009 |
Hamid ibn Mulham |
|
1010 - 1011 |
Wajik ad-Dawlah Abu al-Muta |
|
1011 - 1012 |
Badr al-Attar |
|
1012 - 1014 |
Abu Abdallah al-Muzahhir |
|
1015 - 1021 |
Abd ar-Rahman ibn Ilyas |
|
1015 |
Aleppo is fully controlled
by the Fatamid
dynasty until 1076. The last of the Hamdanids flees to
Byzantium.
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This colour photochrome print shows a wall in Damascus' defences
which is rumoured to be the one over which St Paul escaped in the
first century AD
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1017 - 1020 |
One of
Fatamid
Caliph al Hakim's viziers, a certain Darazi, claims that the caliph is an
incarnation of God. To the caliph's
Egyptian subjects, this is the last
straw. They are shocked by the vizier's announcement and begin to make fun
of their slightly bonkers caliph. The growing dispute between al Hakim and
the populace results in the breakout of a rebellion in 1020. As a result, al
Hakim sends troops to put down the unrest and even burns the city of al Fustat.
Just a year later, al Hakim disappears while on one of his lone donkey rides
in the Muqattam Hills, possibly murdered on the orders of his sister, Set
El-Molk. The subsequent change of leadership probably results in a change of
governorship in Damascus. |
1021 - 1023 |
Wajik ad-Dawlah Abu al-Muta |
Restored to office. |
1023 - 1024 |
Shihab ad-Dawlah Shah Tegin |
|
1024 |
The various Arab tribes of southern Syria form an alliance and rebel against
Fatamid
control of the region. The rebellion sweeps the emir, Shihab ad-Dawlah Shah Tegin,
out of Damascus. |
1024 - 1028 |
Wajik ad-Dawlah Abu al-Muta |
Restored to office for a second time. |
1028 - 1041 |
Anushtegin ad-Dizbari |
Also Anushtakin al-Duzbari. Governor of
Palestine. Exiled. |
1028 - 1029 |
The Arab rebellion in Syria is crushed by the newly-appointed
Fatamid
Turkish governor of Syria and
Palestine,
Anushtegin ad-Dizbari, with victory coming in 1029.
The success gives the new governor control of Syria, which is not something
that pleases his Fatamid masters. However, his authority and leadership is
welcomed by the people of Damascus itself, who are probably relieved to find
some stability after several years of uncertainty. |
1041 |
Anushtegin ad-Dizbari is exiled to
Aleppo where he dies, giving his
Fatamid
masters revenge for his success of 1029. From this point until 1063, events
relating to Damascus remain apparently unrecorded. The city is in a poor
condition, with a feeble economy and a depleted population, and a rapid
turnover of emirs. |
1041 - 1048 |
Nasir ad-Dawlah Abu Ali al-Husein |
|
1048 - 1049 |
Baha ad-Dawlah Takiq al-Saklabi |
|
1049 |
Uddat ad-Dawlah Rifq al-Mustansiri |
A relative of the
Fatamid
caliph al Mustansir (1035-1094). |
1049 - 1058 |
Mu'in ad-Dawlah Haydar |
Son of Adud ad-Dawlah. |
1058 |
Makin ad-Dawlah |
Son of Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn 'Ali. |
1058 - 1060 |
Nasir ad-Dawlah |
Son of Abu Ali al-Husein al-Hamdani. |
1060 |
Sebuq Tegin |
|
1060 - 1072 |
Tension in
Fatamid
Cairo has been slowly growing over the course of the century due to the
caliphate's policy of organising military units based on ethnic background.
While this policy has generally been effective in military terms, its effect
on the political sphere has been more disruptive, pitching Berber factions
against Turkic factions. In the 1060s,
Egypt
suffers a series of droughts and famines, and the delicate political balance
breaks down completely. Turkic and
Nubian
troops fight openly while the Berbers chop-and-change according to
circumstance. Eventually, the Turks seize most of Cairo and hold the caliph
to ransom while the Berbers and Nubians are loose in the countryside.
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Clear-glazed conical bowls from Tell Minis, within Fatamid Syria
in the eleventh century
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1060 - 1061 |
Muwaffaq ad-Dawlah Jauhar al-Mustansiri |
|
1061 |
Hasam ad-Dawlah ibn al-Bachinaki |
|
1061 |
Uddat ad-Dawlah ibn al-Husein |
|
1061 - 1063 |
Mu'in ad-Dawlah Haydar |
Restored to office. |
1063 |
Badr al-Jamali |
Later governor of Acre &
Palestine. First
Fatamid
military vizier. |
1063 - 1067 |
Hisn ad-Dawlah Haydar ibn Mansur |
|
1068 - 1069 |
Qutb ad-Din Baris Tegin |
|
1069 - 1071 |
Hisn ad-Dawlah Mualla al-Kitami |
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? |
Unknown emir(s). |
1072 |
Desperate to resolve the ongoing situation in Cairo,
Fatamid
Caliph al Mustansir recalls General Badr al-Jamali, governor of Acre and
Palestine (and
former of governor of Damascus in 1063). He successfully puts down the
various rebel factions, clearing out much of the Turkic presence at the same
time. However, the caliphate has been seriously weakened by the revolt. Badr
al-Jamali becomes the first military vizier of the caliphate (along much the
same lines as the magistri militum of the late
Western
Roman empire, and they dominate the caliphate in much the same way as
the late Roman emperors had been dominated). The military viziers become the
heads of state in
Egypt
in all but name, with the the caliph reduced to the role of figurehead. |
1075 - 1076 |
Zain ad-Dawlah Intisar |
Son of Yahya al-Masmudi. |
1076 - 1078 |
Turkic
invasions see Syria conquered fairly rapidly. Abaaq al-Khwarazmi is a general
under the command of Malik Shah I, the Seljuq
great sultan, but Damascus quickly becomes the capital of a newly independent state
(either an emirate or the more grand sultanate) under the general, making
him the first Seljuq to gain independence from his overlord. |
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Seljuq Emirs of Damascus
AD 1077 - 1104
The Turkic invasions into
Abbasid territories managed to carve out a swathe of occupied territory.
The caliphate itself had fallen under the dominance of the Turkic Seljuqs in
Persia in 1055, while the
Fatamids
who were the overlords of Syria were gravely weakened by rebellion between
1060-1072. The rebellion had been stoked over the course of a century by the
caliphate's policy of organising military units based on ethnic background,
and this was exacerbated by drought and famine in Fatamid
Egypt.
For a time the Turks in the army had seized most of Cairo and held the
caliph to ransom, until General Badr al-Jamali, governor of Acre and
Palestine, was
called upon to put down all the rebellious factions and clear out much of
the Turkic element.
The damage had been done, however. The caliph's hold on Syria had been weakened
and the Seljuqs were able to seize it. The Seljuq commander secured Damascus for
himself, although he paid lip service to the Seljuq Great Sultan who still
commanded Syria in general, but in all true respects Damascus became an independent
emirate, or perhaps a sultanate (precisely which is unclear). |
1077 - 1079 |
Abaaq al-Khwarazmi |
First Seljuq to gain independence from
Seljuq sultans. Died. |
1079 - 1095 |
Tutush I |
Brother of Seljuq
Great Sultan Malik Shah. Sultan of
Aleppo. |
1085 - 1086 |
Tutush is able to take control of Syria as a whole, securing it from his
brother, Seljuq Great
Sultan Malik Shah. His control is temporary, and he is restricted back in
Damascus the following year, It takes until 1094 before he can reclaim Syria
and secure his title as sultan of
Aleppo.
 |
A stone relief of Seljuq cavalry, which swept through Persia,
northern Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia in the eleventh
century
|
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1095 - 1104 |
Duqaq |
Son. Lost
Aleppo and confined
largely to Damascus. |
1095 |
Duqaq inherits Damascus, but he is the younger of Tutush's sons. His older
brother, Radwan, rebels at the idea of vassal status and instead seizes
Aleppo, splitting the
recently reunited Syrian domains of Tutush. Confusingly, another version of
the story has Duqaq inheriting only the Jezirah and living with Radwan in
Aleppo until it is he who revolts and seizes Damascus for himself. Given
that Duqaq is the younger of the two, the latter version is probably more
likely. |
1098 - 1099 |
The First Crusade finds a divided
Islamic empire governed
by the Seljuq Turks,
and quickly and forcefully carves a large swathe of territory out of it.
Rather than unite, the various local rulers all end their internecine
squabbles and return home to defend their own domains. Coastal Syria is conquered by the Crusaders of
Outremer, with the states of
Edessa,
Antioch, and
Tripoli being
created. |
1100 |
Duqaq manages to ambush Baldwin I of
Edessa and his
bodyguard at Nahr al-Kalb (just outside Beirut). Baldwin is travelling to
Jerusalem to succeed his
brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, as king. The Crusaders are caught in a narrow
pass which they hold successfully, and Baldwin is soon able to continue his
journey. |
1103 - 1104 |
In Homs, Janah ad-Dawla is assassinated (the former atabeg to Radwan of
Aleppo). Duqaq is
able to capture the now-leaderless city, but the following year he falls
gravely ill. Shortly before his death, he heeds his mother's advice and
appoints Atabeg Toghtekin to provide the same service to his young son,
Tutush II. |
1104 |
Tutush II |
Son. Under the guidance of Atabeg Zahir ad-Din Toghtekin. |
1104 |
Muhi ad-Din Baqtash |
|
1104 |
Not content with providing support to the Seljuqs,
Atabeg Zahir ad-Din Toghtekin overthrows the short-lived
Seljuq
dynasty of Tutush I, and in its place he establishes his own
Burid dynasty in Damascus. |
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Burid Emirs of Damascus
AD 1104 - 1154
In 1104 the Atabeg, Zahir ad-Din Toghtekin, overthrew the short-lived
Seljuq dynasty of Tutush I, and replaced it
with his own Burid dynasty in Damascus. He had been the mentor of the last powerful
Seljuq emir, Duqaq, but with that ruler's death, Toghtekin quickly took control of
Damascus. However, his Turk dynasty turned out to be almost as equally short-lived
as the Seljuqs, despite lavishing regular gifts upon the
Abbasid caliph in return for
official recognition. Damascus held what was in effect a frontier against the
Crusader states to the west, and in
the end this constant source of instability was part of their undoing.
|
1104 - 1128 |
Zahir ad-Din Toghtekin |
Founder of the dynasty and
anti-Crusader leader. Ruled
Aleppo. |
1109 - 1110 |
Zahir ad-Din Toghtekin
has managed to end raids by
Crusaders into the Golan Heights and Hauran, aided by Sharaf al-Din
Mawdud of Mosul. But Mawdud's assassination in 1109 ends the involvement of
the north in Syria's defence, so Toghtekin is forced to to agree a truce
with the Crusaders in 1110. |
1127 - 1128 |
Syria
falls out of the nominal control of the
Seljuq Great Sultans
when the Zangid atabegs are appointed to control
a semi-independent Aleppo.
They take command in 1128, following the death of Toghtekin, while the rule
of Damascus becomes unsettled.
 |
Baldwin III was one of the key Christian leaders who were
involved in the Second Crusade, although one of its first acts
was a failure in front of the walls of Damascus in 1154
|
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1128 - 1132 |
Taj al-Muluk Buri |
Son. Assassinated by a rival Muslim group. |
1132 - 1135 |
Shams al-Mulk Ismail |
Son. A tyrant, murdered on the order of his mother. |
1135 - 1139 |
Shihab ad-Din Mahmud |
Brother. Killed by members of his own family. |
1139 - 1140 |
Jamal ad-Din Muhammad |
Emir of Baalbek, selected as the new emir of Damascus. |
1139 - 1140 |
With
the selection of Jamal ad-Din Muhammad as the new emir of Damascus, the
Mameluke soldier, Mu'in ad-Din Unur, is appointed to govern Baalbek in his
name. When Baalbek is besieged by Zangi of
Aleppo and surrenders
to him, Mu'in ad-Din Unur returns to Damascus and is in the right place to
assume complete control when the emir's son is appointed as the new emir
following his father's death in 1140. |
1140 - 1154 |
Mujir ad-Din Abaq |
Son. A weak ruler, even after his regent's death. |
1140 - 1149 |
|
Mu'in ad-Din Unur |
Regent and effective ruler. A Mameluke slave soldier.
Died. |
1146 |
Upon the assassination of Zangi of
Aleppo at the hands of a slave,
his sons divide the state between them, with Nur ad-Din gaining Aleppo and the
elder Ghazi gaining
Mosul & Jazira. Breaking up the state into small rival
principalities means that the Crusaders
are able to recapture Edessa
for two months in the immediate aftermath of the division. |
1149 |
Prince Raymond of
Antioch is killed by Asad ad-Din
Shirkuh, an important Kurdish military commander who serves under Nur ad-Din
of Aleppo. |
1150 - 1159 |
Count Joscelin
of Edessa is
captured and imprisoned in Aleppo
until his death in 1159 when Nur ad-Din
conquers the remnants of the Christian county. |
1154 |
The Second Crusade besieges Damascus with support from
Christian Jerusalem.
With the city apparently ready to capitulate, the Crusaders
switch their main attack against a fresh section of the city walls and are
driven back by the combined forces of Damascus and
Aleppo. The Muslim
victory does not benefit the Burids at all, as Nur ad-Din assumes control,
adding it to his Aleppo territory. |
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Zangid Atabegs of Damascus
AD 1154 - 1181
Following the death of Zangid I, first
Aleppo and then Damascus
were controlled by his successor and son, Mahmud Nur ad-Din, while Nur ad-Din's brother
gained Mosul &
Jazira. Nur ad-Din was a very capable leader, aided by his Kurdish military
commander, Asad ad-Din
Shirkuh. Together they presented a strong front against the Crusaders,
taking Edessa and
carving chunks out of the principality of
Antioch. They also
secured
Egypt from the Crusaders, although this led to the creation of an
independent sultanate there which ultimately gobbled up Aleppo and Damascus. |
1154 - 1174 |
Mahmud Nur ad-Din |
Son of Zangid of Mosul. Ruler of
Aleppo. |
1160 |
The formal career of Salah al-Din Yusuf Ibn Ayyub (or
Saladin), begins when he serves on the staff of his uncle, Asad ad-Din
Shirkuh who himself serves Mahmud Nur ad-Din. He kills Reynald de Châtillon, prince of
Antioch. Antioch's
territories are greatly reduced by the defeat.
 |
The citadel in Aleppo rose to the height of its importance under
the Zangids, and was prison to many titled Crusaders
|
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1169 |
Asad ad-Din Shirkuh and Saladin are involved in a race with the Crusader
kingdom of Jerusalem
to conquer
Fatamid
Egypt. On 2 January 1169, the Crusaders retreat from their siege of the
walls of Cairo and evacuate the region, allowing Shirkuh to take control as
vizier (prime minister). |
1171 - 1174 |
The caliph dies, ending
Fatamid rule of
Egypt and leaving the country in the control of Saladin,
under the suzerainty of Nur ad-Din. The latter's death in 1174 allows
Saladin to assert his full control over Egypt, becoming the first
Ayyubid
sultan. He also takes overall control of Damascus, forcing Nur ad-Din's eleven
year-old son and successor to flee to
Aleppo. |
1174 - 1181 |
Ismail Nur al-Din |
Son. Lost Damascus in 1174. In
Aleppo. Murdered. |
1181 - 1183 |
Ismail is murdered by his relation, Masud I of
Mosul, and
Aleppo
is ruled by Sinjar. In 1183, Saladin
conquers Aleppo, taking it out of Sinjar's control with the
creation of an Ayyubid subsidiary dynasty in
Damascus. |
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Ayyubid Sultanate of Damascus
AD 1183 - 1260
The Ayyubids were originally from a Kurdish tribe that had been formed
by settlers of the Azd tribe of Arabs after they arrived in Kurdistan
in 758. In a period in which the
Islamic world was
badly fractured, they rose to become the most powerful force throughout
the region. The former
Fatimid vizier was Salah al-Din (pronounced S.alâh.udDîn,
better known in the West as Saladin). Under him, the Ayyubids became the
rulers of
Egypt
following the death of Nur ad-Din of
Aleppo and Damascus.
The Ayyubids then defeated and drove the Crusaders from
Jerusalem.
and spent the next decade making further conquests in Islamic territory.
Saladin became overlord of Damascus in 1169, and gained direct control as
sultan in 1183 by conquering the region. He subsequently set up his sons
and relatives in several subsidiary lines, in Aleppo and Damascus, Diyar
Bakr (taken by the White
Sheep in 1402), Hamat, Hims, and Yemen, as well as ruling Egypt itself.
Each ruler of Damascus had a given name and an honorific title (shown in
parenthesis).
(Additional information from The History of Islam (Vol 2), Akbar
Shah Najeebabadi (Revised Edition).) |
1183 - 1186 |
Salah al-Din
Yusuf Ibn Ayyub (Saladin) |
Overlord 1169. Ruler 1183.
His later base was
Ayyubid Egypt. |
1186 - 1192 |
Damascus
is ruled by one of Saladin's sons as a subsidiary state from 1187. The Battle of the Horns
of Hattin and the capture of Guy of Jerusalem leads to the fall of
Jerusalem in 1187,
but more fighting occurs with the Third Crusade, led by Richard I of
England in 1189-1192.
 |
Saladin accepts the surrender of Guy de Lusignan and the Christian armies
following the Battle of Hattin
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1187 - 1196 |
al Afdal (Nur ad Din) |
Son. Inherited Damascus, but not
Aleppo. Exiled to Salkhad. |
1196 |
After several raids against the inept al Afdal, his
brother and sultan of
Egypt, al Aziz Uthman,
loses patience and allies himself with another brother, az-Zahir. Together
they attack Damascus and end al Afdal's reign. Their popular uncle, al Adil,
gains Damascus in his place. |
1196 - 1201 |
al Adil I (Sayf ad Din
/ Safadin)
/ Abu Bakr |
Brother
of Saladin. Also ruled
Egypt
and perhaps Sinjar. |
1200 |
Al-Malik al-Adil I manages to acquire territory
between his sultanate and Mesopotamia, before he also overthrows al Mansur and rules in
Egypt
too, handing over the day-to-day running of Damascus to one of his sons as governor. When
al Adil dies in 1218, the governor, al Muazzam, succeeds him as sultan. |
1201 - 1218 |
|
al Muazzam (Sharaf ad Din) |
Son and governor.
Became sultan in 1218. |
1218 - 1227 |
al Muazzam (Sharaf ad Din) |
Former governor. |
1220 |
Sinjar is
fully conquered by the Ayyubids, ending whatever independence it might have
enjoyed up to this date. |
1227 - 1229 |
al Nasir II (Salah ad Din) |
Son. Dispossessed and became emir of Kerak (1229-1248). |
1228 - 1229 |
The
Fifth Crusade hits the region and
Jerusalem
is ceded to the Christians at
Acre while the Ayyubids squabble amongst themselves. From the moment of
his accession in1227, al Nasir II has faced opposition from his uncle, al
Kamil I of
Egypt. The latter attacks him, taking Jerusalem (before handing it over
to the
Christians) and Nablus. Appealing to another uncle, al Ashraf, the ruler of
Harran, al Nasir is betrayed when both uncles team up. Damascus is besieged
between late 1228 and June 1229, when it falls.
As agreed, al Kamil takes
Palestine and al Ashraf gains Damascus and the
north, acknowledging his brother as overlord. Al Nasir is compensated with
the emirate of Kerak in the Transjordan area. |
1229 - 1237 |
al Ashraf I (Muzaffar ad Din) |
Uncle. Also ruled Harran. |
1234 -
1237 |
From
Egypt, Sultan al Kamil sends his son, the future as Salih II Ayyub, to Damascus,
removing him from the succession in Egypt after suspecting him of conspiracy with the
Mamelukes.
His uncle, as Salih Ismail, soon expels him from Damascus, and he flees to
the Jazirah, where he becomes allied to forces from the former emirate of
Khwarazm. He returns in 1239. |
1237 |
Al Ashraf has been growing more and more discontented with the overlordship
of his brother, al Kamil I of
Egypt. He forms an alliance with Sultan Kaikubad I of
Rum and minor Ayyubid rulers
with the intention of breaking al Kamil's hold on the region. However, both Kaikubad
and al Ashraf die of natural causes in the same year, ending the alliance.
As Salih I succeeds to the sultanate, but against the wishes of al Kamil. |
1237 - 1238 |
as Salih I
Ismail (Imad ad Din) |
Son of al-Adil I. Governor of Baalbek & Bosra. |
1237 -
1238 |
Just months after as Salih's accession, al Kamil of
Egypt sends a force to besiege Damascus. The city falls in 1238 and as
Salih I is removed from power. Al Kamil governs the district personally
before his sudden death. |
1238 |
al Kamil I (Nasir ad Din) |
Brother. Also ruled
Ayyubid Egypt
(1218-1238). |
1238 |
Following the death of his father, al Adil II seizes Damascus, but his reign
is immediately threatened by his brother, as Salih II, as the Ayyubids
continue to tear themselves apart from within. |
1238 - 1239 |
al Adil II (Sayf ad Din) |
Son. Also ruled
Ayyubid Egypt
(1238-1240). Overthrown. |
1239 |
Soon after gaining possession of Damascus, al Adil II is overthrown by as Salih
II when the latter is invited to rule Damascus by Syria's regional
governors. Al Adil continues to rule
Egypt. |
1239 |
as Salih II
Ayyub (Najm ad Din) |
Brother. Also ruled
Ayyubid Egypt
(1240-1249). |
1239 |
Ismail, the former as Salih I of Damascus, initially supports as Salih II
Ayyub. The latter begins to strongly encourage Ismail to join him at Nablus
so that they can embark on a campaign to snatch
Egypt from al Adil II. Instead, Ismail gains support from the Ayyubid
princes of Hama, Homs, and Kerak, and captures Damascus in September. Ayyub
is abandoned by his troops, captured, and handed over to an Nasir Dawud. The
pair quickly decide to attack Egypt themselves, gaining it in 1240, so that
Ayyub becomes sultan. |
1239 - 1244 |
as Salih I
Ismail (Imad ad Din) |
Restored. |
1240 |
Ismail is quickly reconciled with an Nasir Dawud after the latter has fallen
out with Ayyub. Together they decide to curtail Ayyub's ambition to conquer
further Ayyubid territories. In July, Ismail reaches an agreement with
Jerusalem
so that the Crusaders will protect southern
Palestine from Ayyub's possible
attacks from
Egypt. The price is high, though, as he is forced to cede all of the
land west of the Jordan (won by Saladin in 1187), including Gaza, Jerusalem,
and Nablus, along with his own fortresses at Hunin, Safad, and Tiberias. He
is denounced throughout the Arab world for his actions. |
1244 - 1245 |
From
Egypt, as Salih II Ayyub allies himself with the former emirate of
Khwarazm against Ismail. At the Battle of La Forbie, they defeat Ismail
and Ayyub is able to reclaim the sultanate for himself. The following year,
Ayyub defeats
Khwarazm itself for failing to recognise him as its overlord. |
1245 - 1249 |
as Salih II
Ayyub (Najm ad Din) |
Restored and murdered. |
1249 |
The Ayyubid emirate of Kerak is annexed by
Egypt, but by this time the Ayyubids have already lost the Hejaz and
Yemen, and parts of Mesopotamia.
 |
The Great Citadel of Damascus was built between 1076-1078 and
1203-1216, but the Mongols captured it in 1260 and razed it.
Today the ruins remain in place
|
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|
1249 - 1250 |
al Muazzam (Turan-Shah Ghiyat ad Din) |
Son. Also ruled
Ayyubid Egypt
(1249-1250). Killed. |
1250 |
Following a siege, Aleppo is captured and destroyed by the
Mongols
while al-Muazzam is commanding there. Although the defenders are allowed to
live, the sultan does not rule again. Instead, he is overthrown in
Egypt
following the occupation of Damietta by St Louis IX of
France.
This act, and the seizure of the sultanate by the former Mameluke slaves,
effectively destroys Ayyubid control there. Despite aiding the Mamelukes in
cutting short Louis IX's crusade, al Muazzam quickly falls out with his new
allies. In turn they revolt against his nominal overlordship and kill him in
April 1250. Another Ayyubid prince, an Nasir II Yusuf, quickly retakes
Damascus. |
1250 - 1260 |
an Nasir II
Yusuf (Salah ad Din) |
In Aleppo
& Damascus. Captured and killed. |
1250 |
Sultan an Nasir II Yusuf attacks Egypt with a superior army, made up of
units from Aleppo,
Hama, and Homs, and elements of the personal forces of Saladin's two
surviving sons. Despite numerical superiority, the Syrian force suffers
a shock defeat at the hands of the Mameluke
Bahris, and Yusuf is forced to return to Damascus to retain control of
Syria. So begins a decade of warfare and political manoeuvring which
achieves no advantage for either side. |
1254 |
Mongol dominion is established over Mosul. Tolui's son, Hulegu, begins
a campaign which sees him enter the Islamic lands of Mesopotamia on behalf
of Great Khan Mongke. Ismailis (assassins) have been threatening the Mongol
governors of the western provinces, so Mongke has determined that the
Abbasid caliphs must
be brought to heel. Hulegu takes
Khwarazm, and quickly establishes dominion over
Mosul, and Badr
ad Din Lu'lu is allowed to retain governance of the city as he aids the
Mongols in other campaigns in Syria.
 |
Inheriting the Persian section of the Mongol empire through his
father, Tolui, Hulegu Khan led the devastating attack which
ended the Islamic caliphate at Baghdad, but he also brought the
eastern Persian territories under his firm control (he is seen
here with his wife)
|
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|
1258 |
Despite being nominally dominated by the
Mongols
under the Great Khan Mongke, Yusuf's independent actions in Syria and
against
Egypt force a Mongol invasion. Mongke decides to conquer the region as
far as the Nile and sends a vast
Il-Khan
Mongol force against Baghdad in 1258. The
Abbasid caliph and his family are massacred when Yusuf fails to produce
an army to defend them. |
1260 |
The
Mongol army marches on Aleppo
and it quickly falls (within a week). This time, most of the inhabitants are
killed or sold into slavery and the Great Mosque and the defensive Citadel
are razed. When the army arrives at Damascus the city surrenders immediately
as Yusuf has already fled to Gaza. Samaria is captured, with the garrison
of Nablus being put to the sword, and Gaza is taken. Yusuf is captured and
killed while a prisoner, but Baybars of
Egypt sends a Mameluke army which inflicts a defeat on the Mongols at
the Battle of Ain Jalut. Damascus is freed five days later and within a
month most of Syria is in Baybars' hands. Only the principality of Hamat
remains in Ayyubid hands (until 1341). |
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Mameluke Bahrid Emirs of Damascus
AD 1260 - 1517
The Mongols
swept away the last remnants of Ayyubid control
in Syria with their invasion of 1260. A counter-invasion by Baybars from his base in
Egypt
restored Arabic control, and Bahrid (or Bahriyya) emirs (princes or governors
- the term is largely interchangeable) were installed to govern Damascus as
part of a new Egyptian empire. The emirs were
Kipchak
Turks, part of the same dynasty that ruled Egypt itself at this time. The list
of emirs is partially obscure, especially following the invasion of Syria by
Timur from his newly-created
Persian empire.
The Bahri dynasty defined the art and architecture of the entire Mameluke
period. Prosperity generated by the east-west trade in silks and spices
supported the generous patronage of the Mamelukes. Despite periods of
internal struggle, there was tremendous artistic and architectural activity,
developing techniques that had been established by the Ayyubids and
integrating influences from different parts of the Islamic world. Refugees
from east and west contributed to the momentum.
(Additional information from A Brief History of Egypt, Arthur
Goldschmidt, and from External Link:
Warner
College of Natural Resources at Colorado State University.) |
1260 - 1275 |
? |
Name or names of the first emir(s) unknown. |
1275 - 1280 |
Sunkur al-Ashkar |
Rebelled against
Egypt and defeated. |
1280 - 1281 |
Sunkur al-Ashkar leads a rebellion against Sultan Qalawun al Alfi in
Egypt. The sultan defeats it but the following year is faced with a
Mongol invasion of the region through Homs under the leadership of Abaqa
Khan of the Il-Khan
dynasty in Persia. Fortunately the threat is overcome after the bloody
Second Battle of Homs produces no clear outcome.
 |
The Crac Des Chevaliers in Homs was originally a
Crusader castle, but it is through this area that the Mongol
invasion of 1281 took place
|
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|
1280 - ? |
Lachin / Lajin al
Ashqar / Lajin al-Askhar |
Sultan of
Egypt (1296-1299). |
fl 1290s |
Akush Beg |
|
? - 1296 |
Izz ad-Din Ayback |
|
1296 - 1297 |
Shuja ad-Din Adirlu |
|
1297 - 1312 |
Sayf ad-Din Kipchak |
|
1299 - 1303 |
The Il-Khan ruler, Mahmud Ghazan,
marches on Syria, taking Aleppo. He is joined there by his vassal, King Hethoum
II of the kingdom of
Lesser
Armenia. Together they defeat the Mameluke Bahrids of
Egypt and Damascus at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar on 23 or 24
December. The Bahrids are pushed back into Egypt and Damascus quickly falls
to the invaders. The Il-Khans then withdraw, perhaps due to a lack of
supplies. The attack is renewed in 1301, but it degenerates into a
scattering of inconclusive battles and politicking. In the end, Ghazan's
forces are defeated by the Mamelukes of Egypt at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar
in April 1303 and withdraw, never to return. |
1312 - 1340 |
Sayf ad-Din Tanqiz as-Nasiri |
|
1340 - 1350 |
Yilbugha al-Nasiri |
|
1349 |
The Black Death comes to
Egypt and the Levant causing great loss of life and further weakening
Egypt's empire. |
1350 |
Sayf ad-Din Manjak |
|
fl c.1380 |
Tash Timur |
|
? - 1393 |
Yilbugha al-Nasiri |
Restored. |
1393 - 1399 |
Sayf ad-Din Tanibak |
|
1389 |
Two
Mameluke governors rebel in
Egypt's empire: Mintash, governor of Malatya, and Yalbogha al-Nasiri,
governor of Aleppo.
They secure Syria and march on Cairo. The usurper sultan, Barquq, attempts
to escape, but he is captured and sent to al-Karak. The successful governors
restore Hajji to the throne, who now assumes the reignal name of al-Mansur. |
1399 - 1400 |
Sudun |
|
1400 - 1401 |
Jalayirid Iraq becomes a province of Timur's
Persia when he conquers
Baghdad, defeats the Black Sheep
emirate in eastern Anatolia, and captures Damascus. The following year Timur
also defeats, captures and imprisons the
Ottoman ruler Bayezid I at
the Battle of Ankara, making Anatolia another province. |
1401 - ? |
Taghribirdi al-Zahiri |
|
|
? |
Name or names unknown. |
fl c.1470s |
Kijmas |
|
fl c.1500 |
Ghazali Arab |
|
1516 - 1517 |
Shihab ad-Din Ahmad |
Last Bahrid emir. Killed in battle. |
1515 - 1517 |
The
Ottoman
sultan begins a war against
Egypt
which ultimately sees the latter conquered. Sultan Qansawh II al Ghawri is killed
on 24 August 1516 at the Battle of Merj Dabik. Syria is immediately captured.
Dhanbirdi al-Ghazali, the Mameluke viceroy of Hama, fights alongside the Ottomans
and is rewarded with the governorship of Damascus. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Ottoman Governors of Damascus
AD 1517 - 1918
The Ottoman
sultan conquered
Egypt
to take it out of the hands of the Mameluke Burjis, fearing a union between
them and the Persian Safavids.
He did the same to the Mamelukes of Damascus, with Sultan Qansawh
II al Ghawri being killed on 24 August 1516 at the Battle of Merj Dabik. On 21
September 1516 the Mameluke governor of Damascus fled the city and on 2 October
Sultan Selim I was proclaimed victor. He remained at Damascus for three months,
leaving on 15 December 1516. With Syria now in Ottoman hands, their ally in the
region, Djanbirdi al-Ghazali, the Mameluke
viceroy of Hama, was rewarded with the governorship of Damascus. The city retained
its prestige during Ottoman rule but declined materially, despite being an important
location for the pilgrimage to
Mecca.
|
1516 |
Yunus Pasha |
Ottoman military commander. Died 1517. |
1516 - 1518 |
Shihab ad-Din Ahma ibn Yahya |
First Ottoman governor/wali of Damascus province. |
1517 - 1518 |
Nuh Celebi |
Acting governor. |
1518 |
Ottoman
Sultan Selim I is impressed with Djanbirdi al-Ghazali and his loyalty to his
former Mameluke masters until they bore
no true authority during the Ottoman invasion. The former viceroy of Hama is
made governor of the province of Damascus which includes a great deal of the
Levant between central Syria and
Palestine and Transjordan. His first act is
to subdue the Turkmen nomads in the region so that the pilgrim caravan can
travel safely to
Mecca.
 |
The legendary strength of ancient Damascus steel was used by
sword-makers in the Middle East from about AD 900 until the
middle of the eighteenth century
|
|
|
1518 - 1521 |
Djanbirdi al-Ghazali |
Former Mameluke
viceroy of Hama. Rebelled and executed. |
1520 - 1521 |
Following the death of
Ottoman
Sultan Selim I and the accession of his successor, Suleyman I the Magnificent, Djanbirdi
rebels. He seeks to restore Mameluke
suzerainty over Syria and goes so far as to declare himself sultan. Hama,
Hims, and Tripoli join his rebellion, but both Khair Bey of
Egypt and Shah Esmail of
Iran refuse to
support him. He raises an army and strikes out towards
Aleppo, which remains
loyal to the Ottomans, and a siege of the city fails. An Ottoman army
arrives outside Damascus in February 1521 and in the resultant battle, Djanbirdi's
army is destroyed and he is captured and executed. Damascus is sacked, and
about 3,000 of its residents are killed. |
1521 - 1522 |
Aiyaz / Ayas Mehmet Pasha |
|
1522 - 1523 |
Ferhad Pasha |
|
1523 - 1525 |
Hurram Pasha |
|
1525 - 1526 |
Sulayman Pasha al-Tawashi |
|
1526 - 1528 |
Lutf / Lufti Pasha |
|
1528 - 1531 |
Isa Bey Pasha Chenderli / Cenderli |
|
1531 - 1534 |
Mustafa Ablaq Pasha |
|
1534 - 1535 |
Lutf / Lufti Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1535 |
Isa Bey Pasha Chenderli / Cenderli |
Second term of office. Died 1535. |
1536 - 1537 |
Mohammad / Mehmed Kuzal Pasha |
|
1537 - 1538 |
Topal Sulayman Pasha |
|
1538 - 1539 |
Ahmed Pasha (I) |
|
1539 - 1541 |
Qese / Köse Husrau Pasha |
|
1541 - 1543 |
Candarli Isa Pasha |
Third term of office? |
1543 - 1545 |
Piri Pasha |
|
1545 - 1550 |
Hadim Sinan Pasha |
|
1550 - 1551 |
Piri Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1551 - 1552 |
Mohammad Pasha Bartaki |
Or Tekeoglu Mehmed Pasha. |
1552 - 1555 |
Shamsi Ahmed Pasha |
|
1555 - 1561 |
Hizr Pasha |
|
1561 - 1563 |
Ali Pasha Lankun |
|
1563 |
Khusrau Pasha (I) |
|
1563 - 1569 |
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha |
Beylerbey of Damascus (governor-general). Died 1580. |
1565 |
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha commands the
Ottoman
land forces during the (Great) Siege of Malta. The island's defenders are
the Knights Hospitaller, together with up to 5,000 Maltese troops. The siege
is one of the bloodiest on record, and the island loses about a third of its
manpower, in knights and civilians. But the Ottomans are defeated with very
heavy losses of their own, and they never again threaten Malta. The defeat
also denies them control of the western Mediterranean and the chance to
strike deeper at southern European states. |
1569 |
Murad Pasha Shaitan |
Died 1569/1570. |
1569 - 1570 |
Ali Pasha Lankun |
Second term of office. |
1570 - 1571 |
Haji Ahmed Pasha |
|
1571 - 1574/5 |
Dervis Pasha |
Died 1574/1575. |
1574 - 1575 |
Lala Jafar Pasha |
|
1575 - 1577 |
Murad Pasha |
|
1577 - 1581 |
Hasan Pasha (I) |
|
1581 - 1582? |
Bahram Pasha |
|
1582 |
Bahram Pasha |
|
1582 - 1583 |
Bodur Husein Pasha (I) |
Died 1594/1595. |
1583 |
Hasan Pasha (I) |
|
1584 |
Qubad Sulayman Pasha |
|
1585 - 1586 |
Hasan Pasha (I) |
Second term of office. |
1586 - 1587 |
Uways / Oweis Pasha |
|
1586 |
Koca Sinan Pasha |
Died 1596. |
1587 - 1588 |
Mohammad Pasha Farhad |
|
1588 - 1589 |
Uways / Oweis Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1589 - 1590 |
Elwanzade Ali Pasha |
|
1590 |
Hasan Pasha (I) |
Third term of office. |
1590 |
Kocha Sinan Pasha |
|
1590 |
Sinanzade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1591 |
Mustafa Pasha (I) |
|
1591/2 - 1593/4 |
Hadim Khusrev Pasha |
|
1592 |
Khalil / Halil Pasha |
|
1593 - 1594 |
Qachirji Mohammad Pasha |
|
1594 |
Hasan Pasha (I) |
Fourth term of office. |
1594 |
Ali Pasha Bostanci |
|
1594 - 1595 |
Murad Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1595 - 1596 |
Khusrau Pasha (II) |
|
1596 - 1597 |
Razia Hutunzade Mustafa Pasha |
|
1597 - 1598 |
Yusuf Sinan Pasha |
|
1598 |
Ahmed Pasha (II) |
|
1598 |
Ahmed Pasha (III) |
|
1599 |
Khusrau Pasha (II) |
Second term of office. |
1599 - 1600 |
Seyyed / Seid / Emin Mehmed Pasha |
|
1600 |
Cigalezade Mahmud Pasha |
|
1600/1601 |
Osman Pasha |
|
1601/1602 |
Hasan Pasha |
|
1602/1603 |
Farhad Pasha Bustanji |
|
1603/1604 |
Osman Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1604 |
Canbalatzade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1604 - 1605? |
Mustafa Pasha (II) |
Either a different Mustafa from 1591, or a second term of
office. |
1605 - 1606? |
Koca Faragi Osman Pasha |
|
1607 |
Cigalezade Mahmud Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1607 - 1608 |
Mahmud Pasha |
|
1608 - 1609 |
Sufi Sinan Pasha |
|
1609 - 1615 |
Ahmad al-Hafiz |
|
1615 - 1617 |
Silihdar Mehmed Pasha |
|
1617 - 1618 |
Damad Ahmed Pasha |
|
1618 |
Mehmed Pasha al-Djuqadar |
|
1618 - 1619 |
Ahmad al-Hafiz |
Second term of office. |
1619 - 1620 |
Mustafa Pasha (III) |
|
1620 - 1621 |
Sulayman Pasha (I) |
|
1621 - 1622 |
Murtaza Pasha Bustanji |
|
1622 - 1623 |
Mehmed Pasha Rushand |
|
1623 - 1624 |
Mustafa Pasha al-Hannaq |
|
1624 - 1625 |
Nigdeli Mustafa Pasha |
|
1625 - 1626 |
Gurju Mehmed Pasha (I) |
|
1626 - 1628 |
Tayar Oglu Mehmed Pasha |
|
1628 - 1629 |
Küçük Ahmed Pasha |
|
1629 - 1630 |
Mustafa Pasha (IV) |
|
1630 - 1631 |
Nawaya Mehmed Pasha |
|
1631? |
Cevzak Süleyman Pasha |
|
1632 - 1633 |
Ilyas Pasha |
|
1632/1633 |
Debbag Mehmed Pasha |
|
1633 - 1635 |
Deli Yusuf Pasha |
Held office for three days. |
1635 - 1636 |
Küçük Ahmed Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1636 - 1636/7 |
Biykli Mustafa Pasha |
|
1636 - 1638 |
Dervish Mehmed Pasha (I) |
|
1638 - 1639 |
Tüccarzâde or Mustafa Pasha (IV) |
Second term of office. |
1639 - 1640 |
Chifteli Othman Pasha |
|
1640 - 1641 |
Mehmed Pasha (I) |
|
1641 |
Serji Ahmed Pasha |
|
1641 - 1642 |
Celep Ahmed Pasha |
|
1642 |
Melik Ahmed Pasha |
|
1642 - 1643 |
Celep Ahmed Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1643 |
Sultanzade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1643 |
Silihdar Yusuf Pasha |
|
1643 - 1644 |
Boynuegri Durak Mehmed Pasha |
|
1644 - 1645 |
Gürcê / Gurju Mehmed Pasha (II) |
|
1645 |
Ibrahim Pasha (I) |
|
1645 - 1646 |
Mehmed Pasha Salami |
Held office for three days. |
1646 |
Gürcê / Gurju Mehmed Pasha (II) |
Second term of office. |
1646 - 1647 |
Silihadar Yusuf Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1647 |
Sufi Murteza Pasha |
|
1648 |
Sofu Mehmed Pasha |
Ottoman
Grand Vizier (1648-1649). |
1648 - 1649 |
The former chamberlain and then chief of the treasury, Sofu Mehmed Pasha is
dismissed during the reign of
Ottoman Sultan Ibrahim. He briefly manages to become governor of
Damascus before being forced by the janissary leaders to become grand vizier
during a period of disturbance. Ibrahim is dethroned five days later and
killed ten days after that, and Sofu is suspected of being present at his
execution. Less than a year after gaining the post, he is replaced and
exiled. Kara Murad Pasha, commander of the janissary, has him executed in
August 1649.
 |
This Damascus Room was built as part of a growing fashion for
richly decorated interiors in Ottoman Damascus in the eighteenth
century
|
|
|
1649 |
Damad Ibshir Mustafa Pasha |
|
1649 |
Haseki Mehmed Pasha |
|
1649 - 1650 |
Mehmed Pasha (II) |
|
1650 |
Silihdar Murtaza Pasha |
|
1650 - 1651 |
Siwasli Mustafa Pasha |
|
1651 - 1652 |
Ag Ahmed Pasha |
|
1651 - 1652 |
Gürcê / Gurju Mehmed Pasha (II) |
Third term of office. |
1652/1653 |
Deftarzade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1653 - 1654 |
Halicizade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1655 |
Gazi Pasha Shahsuvar-odjlu |
|
1655 |
Qara Murad Pasha |
|
1655 - 1656 |
Qeprulu Fazil Ahmed Pasha |
|
1656 |
Boynuegri Durak Mehmed Pasha |
|
1656 |
Siyavush Pasha |
In office from Aug/Sep to Dec. |
1656 |
Mustafa Pasha |
|
1657/1658 |
Silihdar Murtaza Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1658 |
Tayyardzade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1658/9- 1659/60 |
Nuri Mehmed Pasha |
|
1659/60 - 1660 |
Gürcü Mustafa Pasha |
|
1659? - 1661 |
Köprülü Fazil Ahmed Pasha |
|
1661 - 1662? |
Haci Eyvad Sulayman Pasha (II) |
|
1662 - 1663 |
Kanbur Mustafa Pasha |
|
1663 - 1665 |
Filibeli / Ribleli Mustafa Pasha |
|
1665 - 1666 |
Salih Pasha (I) |
|
1665/6 - 1666/7 |
Çavuszade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1666 - 1667 |
Qara Mustafa Pasha |
|
1667 - 1669 |
Mehmed Pasha Chewish Oglu |
|
1669 - 1671 |
Ibrahim Pasha Shaytan |
|
1671 - 1672 |
Abazekh Husein Pasha |
|
1672 - 1673 |
Qara Mehmed Pasha |
|
1673 - 1674 |
Ibrahim Pasha Shushman |
|
1674 - 1675 |
Qer Husein Pasha |
|
1675 - 1676 |
Ibrahim Pasha (II) |
|
1676 - 1679 |
Osman Pasha Bustarji |
|
1679 - 1683 |
Abazekh Husein Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1684 |
Hamza Pasha |
In office for an unspecified period from March. |
1684 |
Ibrahim Pasha (III) |
|
1684 - 1685 |
Osman Pasha Bustarji |
Second term of office. |
1686 - 1687 |
Kaplan Pasha |
|
1687 - 1688 |
Arab Salih Pasha |
|
1688 - 1689 |
Hamza Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1689 - 1690 |
Silihdar Mustafa Pasha |
|
1690 - 1691 |
Murtaza Pasha |
|
1691 - 1692 |
Gurju Mehmed Pasha (III) |
|
1693 - 1694 |
Ibshir Mustafa Pasha |
|
1693/4 - 1694 |
Shahin Mehmed Pasha |
|
1695 - 1696 |
Silihdar Osman Pasha |
|
1696 - 1697 |
Silihdar Buuqli Mustafa Pasha |
|
1697 - 1698 |
Ahmad Pasha Hacigirai |
|
1698/9 - 1699 |
Biykli Mehmed Pasha |
|
1700/1701 |
Silihdar Husein Pasha |
|
1700 |
Silihdar Hasan Pasha |
|
1701 |
Biykli Mehmed Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1701 |
Arslan Mehmed Pasha Matracyoghlu |
|
1702 |
Salih Agha |
Acting governor. |
1702 - 1703 |
Mehmed Pasha Kurd Bajram Pasha-ojlu |
|
1703 |
Kücük Osman Pasha Arnavud |
|
1703 - 1704 |
Arslan Mehmed Pasha Matracyoghlu |
Second term of office. |
1704 |
Mustafa Pasha (V) |
|
1704 - 1705 |
Firari Hüseyin Pasha |
|
1705 - 1706 |
Mehmed Pasha Kurd Bajram Pasha-ojlu |
Second term of office. |
1706 - 1707 |
Baltaci Süleyman Pasha |
|
1707 |
Yusuf Pasha Qubtan Helvaci |
|
1707 |
Halebli Hüseyin Pasha |
|
1708 - 1714 |
Osmanzade Nasuh Pasha al-Aydini |
|
1714 |
Cerkes Mehmed Pasha the Circassian |
|
1714 |
Mehmed Pasha (III) |
|
1715 |
Topal Yusuf Pasha |
|
1716 |
Arnavut Recep Pasha |
|
1716 - 1717 |
Nevsehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha |
Died 1730, aged 60. |
1717 - 1718 |
Köprülüzade Abd Allah Pasha |
|
1718 |
Reçeb Pasha |
|
1718 |
Abu Tawq Matuqzade Osman Pasha |
|
1719 - 1720 |
Küçük Osman Pasha |
|
1720 - 1723 |
Ali Pasha Maqtulojlu |
|
1723 - 1725 |
Abu Tawq Matuqzade Osman Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1725 - 1730 |
Azamzade Ismail Pasha |
|
1730 |
Osman Aça |
Acting governor. |
1730 |
Qara Süleyman Aça |
Acting governor. |
1730 - 1731/2 |
Aidinli Abdallah Pasha |
|
1731/2 - 1733 |
The position of governor of Damascus is vacant. |
1733 - 1738 |
Azamzade Süleyman Pasha |
Former governor of Tripoli. |
1734 |
The winter of 1734 is a harsh one, and a bread riot erupts in Damascus. The
new governor is perceived to be inactive during the riot so the mob target
his own personal stores. In return he hangs four of them and relations after
that take some time to improve between governor and the people.
 |
The janissaries were infantry units that formed the Ottoman
sultan's bodyguard and household troops, but they also sometimes
played a role in deciding who sat on the throne
|
|
|
1738 |
Hüsein Pasha II |
|
1739 |
Abu Tawq Matuqzade Osman Pasha |
Third term of office. |
1740 |
Abdi Pashazade Ali Pasha |
|
1741 - 1743 |
Azamzade Süleyman Pasha |
Second term of office. Died 1743. |
1743 |
In office again during a second bread riot in Damascus, Azamzade threatens
the cause - the traders and suppliers in charge of the grain supply - and
the problem is immediately resolved. Azamzade ends his term of office as a
very popular governor. |
1743 - 1757 |
As'ad / Azamzade Esad Pasha |
Nephew. Deposed. |
1750 - 1757 |
As'ad uses the great wealth amassed by his family to build the Azm Palace in
Damascus in 1750. However, even though he ensures the stability of the
region and the safety of the pilgrimage caravans, this does not save him
from being deposed by the new
Ottoman authorities in Constantinople on a flimsy excuse. |
1757 |
Mekkizade Hüseyin Pasha |
|
1758/9 - 1760 |
Ceteci Abd Allah Pasha |
|
1760 |
Ishalyq Mehmed Pasha |
|
1760 |
The former slave of the former governor, As'ad who had been deposed in 1757,
is a
Georgian named Uthman. He leads the
Ottoman authorities to
uncover his master's treasures and is elevated to governor of Damascus as a
reward. |
1760 - 1771 |
Uthman Pasha al-Kurzi / Osman Sadik |
Georgian. Former slave of As'ad. |
1768 - 1771 |
The Mameluke bey of
Egypt, Ali Bey al-Kabir, deposes the
Ottoman
governor there and assumes full control of Egypt. The payment of annual tribute is
stopped and in 1769, Ali Bey has his name struck on coins. The following
year he gains control of the Hijaz and in 1771 briefly occupies Syria,
effectively recreating the
Mameluke
state. |
1771 - 1772 |
Azamzade Mehmed Pasha |
|
1771 - 1772 |
In June 1771, Abu al-Dhahab, the commander of Ali Bey's troops in Syria,
refuses to fight against the
Ottomans.
When he turns on Ali Bey in 1772, the latter loses power in
Egypt. He is killed in
Cairo in 1773. |
1772 - 1773 |
Hafiz Mustafa Pasha Bustanci |
|
1773 - 1783 |
Azamzade Mehmed Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1783 |
Osmanzade Mehmed Pasha |
In office in May-June only. |
1783 - 1784 |
Osmanzade Dervish Pasha |
|
1784 - 1786 |
Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar |
Governor of Acre & Galilee (1775-1804). |
1786 - 1787 |
Hüseyin Pasha Battal |
Died 1801. |
1787 - 1788 |
Abdi Pasha |
|
1788 - 1790 |
Ibrahim Pasha al-Halabi |
|
1790 - 1795 |
Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar |
Second term of office. |
1795 - 1798 |
Azamzade Abdallah Pasha |
|
1798 - 1799 |
Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar |
Third term of office. |
1799 |
Following their conquest of
Egypt, the Revolutionary
French
under Napoleon Bonaparte occupy parts of coastal Syria between February and
June as part of their bold plans of expansion into the region. In his role
as governor of Acre & Galilee, as well as of Damascus, Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar
leads the fight against them. The
Ottomans
are routinely defeated in field battles, and lose Al-Arish and Jaffa, but
they hold firm in the siege of Acre. Eventually Napoleon is forced to
withdraw, abandoning his attempt to break through to
Britain's possessions in
India.
 |
Napoleon Bonaparte is shown here visiting those of
his troops who were stricken by plague at Jaffa after taking the
fortress there by storm
|
|
|
1799 - 1803 |
Azamzade Abdallah Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1803/1804 |
Kataragasi Ibrahim Pasha |
|
1803 - 1804 |
Ahmed Pasha al-Jazzar |
Fourth term of office. Died 1804. |
1804 - 1807 |
Azamzade Abdallah Pasha |
Third term of office. |
1807 - 1810 |
Kunj Yusuf Pasha |
|
1810 - 1811 |
Süleyman Pasha Silahdar
|
|
1812 - 1816 |
Silahdar Süleyman Pasha |
|
1816 - 1817 |
Hafiz Amasyali Ali Pasha |
|
1817 |
Salih Pasha (III) |
Feb-Mar only. |
1817 - 1819 |
Süleyman Pasha Silahdar
|
Second term of office. |
1819 - 1821 |
Abdallah Pasha (II) |
|
1821 - 1822 |
Dervish Mehmd Pasha (II)
|
|
1822 - 1823 |
Mustafa Pasha (IV) |
|
1823 - 1824? |
Salih Pasha (III) |
Second term of office. |
1824 |
Müftizade Ahmed Pasha |
|
1825/6 - 1826/7 |
Haci Veliyeddin Pasha |
|
1826 - 1826/7 |
Hakki Ismail Pasha |
|
1826/7 - 1828 |
Izmirli Haci Salih Pasha |
|
1828 - 1831 |
Mehmed Emin Rauf Pasha |
Former
Ottoman Grand Vizier (5 times). |
1831 |
Benderli Mehmed Selim Sırrı Paşa |
Former
Ottoman Grand Vizier (1824-1828). Murdered. |
1831 |
The citizens of Damascus rise in revolt against Benderli, and the local
garrison of janissaries join in. Benderli seeks refuge into the Citadel of
Damascus and is besieged for forty days. Ultimately, he is promised safe
passage but is murdered before he is able to leave the city. |
1831 - 1832 |
Haci Ali Pasha |
Until May/Jun 1832. |
1832 |
Damascus is annexed by Ibrahim Pasha of
Egypt between May and June
on behalf of Muhammad Ali Pasha, and subsequently operates on an autonomous basis.
The Ottomans retain only nominal suzerainty. Egyptian governors are shown in red. |
1832 |
Ibrahim Pasha (IV)
|
Egyptian commander from 27 May 1832. |
1831 - 1832 |
Ahmed Bey
|
Military and civil governor. |
1832 - 1838 |
Muhammad Sharif Pasha
|
Egyptian governor. |
1838 - 1840 |
The position of governor of Damascus falls vacant again, and on 10 October 1840 the
Ottoman empire regains direct authority over the city. |
1840 |
Haci Ali Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1840 - 1841 |
Izzet / Necib Mehmed Pasha
|
|
1841 - 1844 |
Mehmed Reshid Pasha |
Ottoman military governor. |
1841 - 1846 |
|
Riza / Mirza Pasha |
Wali / governor. |
1841 - 1842 |
|
Gürcü Mehmed Necib Pasha |
Wali / governor. |
1842 - 1845 |
|
Laz Ali Riza Pasha |
Wali / governor. |
1845 - 1846 |
Damad Mehmed Namiq Pasha |
Ottoman military governor. |
1846 - 1848 |
Musa Sefveti Pasha |
Wali without a military governor overseeing the region. |
1848 |
Halil Kamili Pasha |
|
1848 - 1849 |
Osman Nuri Pasha |
|
1849 - 1851 |
Damad Mehmed Namiq Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1852 |
Osman Pasha Said Pasha |
|
1852 |
Ahmed Izzet Mehmed Pasha |
|
1852 |
Açaf / Agha Pasha |
|
1852 - 1854 |
Ali Askar Pasha |
|
1854 - 1855 |
Arif Mehmed Pasha |
|
1855 |
Damad Mehmed Namiq Pasha |
Third term of office. |
1855 |
Serhalifezade Namik Salih Pasha |
|
1855 - 1856 |
Mahmud Nedim Pasha |
|
1856 |
Arnavud Süleyman Refet Pasha |
|
1856 - 1857 |
Ahmed Izzet Mehmed Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1857 - 1858 |
Kutuhyali Haci Ali Pasha |
|
1858 - 1859 |
Halil Kamili / Ali Pasha (II) |
|
1859 - 1860 |
Ahmed Pasha (IV) |
|
1860 |
Mehmed Mu'amer Pasha |
|
1860 - 1862 |
Muftizade Emin Muhlis Pasha |
|
1862 - 1863 |
Pepe Mehmed Emin Pasha |
|
1863 - 1865 |
Müterçim Mehmed Rüstü Pasha |
|
1865 - 1866 |
Sakizli Esad uhlis Pasha |
Died 1867. |
1866 - 1871 |
Mehmed Reshid Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1871 - 1872 |
Adullatif Subhi Pasha |
|
1872 - 1873 |
Selanikli Mustafa Necib Pasha |
Died 1883. |
1873 - 1874 |
Sherif Mehmed Re'uf / Rauf Pasha |
|
1874 - 1875 |
Esad Pasha |
|
1875 - 1876 |
Ahmed Hamdi Pasha |
|
1876 |
Ahmed Pasha (V) |
|
1876 |
Rashid Nashid Pasha |
|
1877 |
Abdulhamid Ziyaeddin Pasha |
|
1877 - 1878 |
Küçük Ömer Fevzi Pasha |
|
1878 |
Ahmed Cevdet Pasha |
|
1878 - 1879 |
Ali Haydar Midhat Pasha |
|
1879 |
Bostancibashizade Reshid M Pasha |
|
1879 - 1880 |
? |
Name unknown. |
1880 - 1885 |
Ahmed Hamdi Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1881 |
The first modern-era wave of Jewish migrations back to the
Holy Land begins
with an event known as the First Aliyah. The Jews are fleeing pogroms in
Eastern Europe, most notably in the territories of the
Russian empire. |
1885 - 1888 |
Rashid Nashid Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1888 - 1889 |
Manastirli Mehmed Nazif Pasha |
Died 1889. |
1889 - 1891 |
Mustafa Asim Pasha |
Died 1891. |
1891 - 1892 |
Topal Osman Nuri Pasha |
|
1892 - 1894 |
Sherif Mehmed Re'uf / Rauf Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1894 - 1896 |
Topal Osman Nuri Pasha |
Second term of office. |
1894 |
The
attempted extermination of the
Armenians is
put into action under Ottoman
Sultan Abd al-Hamid II. It is sporadically resumed, notably in 1915. |
1896 - 1897 |
Hasan Pasha II |
|
1897 |
The question of a Jewish homeland is gaining international recognition,
helped on by the founding of a political form of Zionism and the first
meeting of the World Zionist Congress in this year, held in Basel in
Switzerland. |
1897 - 1906 |
Nazim Pasha |
|
1904 - 1914 |
The Second Aliyah to
Palestine is triggered in 1903 by an anti-Jewish riot
in the city of Kishinev (modern Chişinău), the capital of the province of
Bessarabia (modern Moldova), part of the
Russian empire. Something like
40,000 Jews settle in Palestine, although only half remain permanently. |
1906 - 1909 |
Shukri Pasha |
|
1909 - 1911 |
Ismail Fazil Bey |
|
1911 - 1912 |
Ismail Ghalib Bey |
|
1912 - 1913 |
Kiazim Pasha |
|
1913 |
Arif Bey |
|
1914 |
Mehmed Arif Bey Mardin |
|
1915 |
Jamal Pasha |
|
1915 |
The Armenians
are accused by the Ottomans
of aiding the
Russian
invaders during the First World War. From 24 April 1915, over 600,000
Armenians are killed by Turkish soldiers or die of starvation during their
forced deportation to Syria and Iraq.
The Armenians rise in revolt at Van (traditional location at which the Armenian
state had been founded), which they hold until relieved by Russian troops.
In the same year, the hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by
Jamal Pasha is intended to put an end to local opposition to the 1908
Ottoman programme of
Turkicisation in the region. Instead it has the opposite effect, raising
tensions and nationalistic feeling against the Turks.
 |
With the Ottoman empire fading in power and prestige, the time
was ripe for the Arab Revolt, led by the Hashemites and TE
Lawrence
|
|
|
1915 - 1916 |
Azmi Pasha |
|
1916 - 1918 |
Tahsin Bey |
|
1916 - 1918 |
The
British-backed
Arab Revolt is proclaimed with an attack on Medina (where the Prophet
Mohammed died in AD 632). The revolt liberates much of the Middle East from
Ottoman control, with Britain
and the Hashemite
Arabs taking control of
Iraq and Kuwait,
Palestine, and the
Transjordan, and
France
controlling Lebanon and
Syria. On 30 October 1918, Turkey signs an armistice at Mudros, on the Aegean
island of Lemnos. |
1918 |
Mehmed Gabriel Pasha |
|
1918 |
The
British
Light Brigade and then TE Lawrence both arrive in Damascus on 1 October. The
Arab forces arrive two days later under Prince Faysal, son of the sharif of
Mecca. A
military government is subsequently set up in the city under Shukri Pasha
and Faysal is proclaimed king of Syria. |
1918 |
Shukri Pasha |
Military governor. Second term of office, 1-2 October only. |
1918 - 1920 |
Under the protection of the
British empire,
Syria is promised to
France.
For these two years it forms the 'State of Damascus' under Hashemite and
British control. |
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Hashemite Greater Syria
AD 1918 - 1920
Between 1916-1918, the Arab Revolt, led by Faysal, son of the sharif of
Mecca, and
British
Army officer T E Lawrence, freed the entire region of
Ottoman control. The Arabs
captured Damascus and secured a semblance of power, and in the subsequent
bargaining with the British who now controlled the region, Faysal was given
the throne Greater Syria in 1920. Damascus was made his capital.
This use of the term 'Greater Syria' should not be confused with the more
recent Syrian Social Nationalist Party's definition of a Greater Syria. This
includes the entire Levant down to and including Sinai, as well as
Jordan, and all of
Iraq and
Kuwait, encompassing the
Assyrian empire's
holdings at its greatest extent, with the exception of
Egypt. |
1918 - 1920 |
Faysal / Faisal |
Son of Husayn,
sharif of Mecca.
Overthrown by
France. |
1920 - 1921 |
Faysal is offered the Syrian throne on 7 March 1920. The following day he
becomes ruler of the United Kingdom of Syria. However, the San Remo
conference of April gives the mandate for Syria to
France.
The French immediately move to end Faysal's Arabic government, which refuses to
recognise the League of Nations-agreed mandate.
 |
King Faysal was photographed at Homs in 1919, standing third
from the left
|
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Faysal also refuses to recognise the legitimacy of the newly created sate of
Lebanon, which takes a
large slice of Greater Syria's coastal territory. Against his orders, his
defence minister, General Yusuf al-Azmah, leads a small army into a hopeless
fight at the Battle of Maysalun (Pass). It is defeated, the French take control
of Syria, and Faysal is exiled. The following
year, he is compensated by the
British
with the throne of Iraq. |
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Modern Syria
AD 1920 - Present Day
The modern Syrian Arabic Republic borders
Lebanon to the west,
Iraq to the east,
Turkey to the north, and
Jordan and
Israel to the south
and south-west respectively. The capital is the ancient city of
Damascus, but while the country
has cultural roots that go back at least four thousand years, it has no
political roots before 1918, having been submerged within the
Ottoman empire for several
centuries.
Following the defeat of the Ottomans at the end of the First World
War, Syria was administered for two years as the 'State of Damascus' under
Hashemite and
British
control. The Hashemite Prince Faysal was offered the Syrian throne on 7 March
1920 but the San Remo conference of April that year gave the mandate for Syria to
France.
The French immediately ended Faysal's Arabic government and arranged
elections that saw Faysal's former prime minister brought to power as the
country's first president. Modern Syria gained independence from France in
1946.
In the twenty-first century, Syria is a country of fertile plains, high
mountains and deserts. It is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups,
including Armenians,
Assyrians, Christians,
Druze, Kurds, Alawite Shia and Arab Sunnis, the last of whom make up a
majority of the Muslim population whilst the Christians are amongst the
earliest practitioners of that religion. Its hardline, authoritarian
government has often looked to
Russia
as an ally and supporter, alienating it from Western governments, whilst a
civil war has wracked the country since 2011, and shows no signs of abating.
The rise in 2014 of Isis
made the official regime in Damascus seem extremely moderate by comparison,
but Western governments still refuse to support it against the far more
serious threat.
(Additional information by Allan Rousso, and from External Link:
BBC Country Profiles.) |
|
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|
1922 - 1924 |
The 'State of Syria' is established under the
French
mandate, replacing the Syrian Federation which had been formed in 1922. This
new organisational body is created from a unification of the states of
Aleppo and
Damascus, both formed around
ancient cities. The 'State of Alawites' remains outside this new formation
despite having been part of the former federation, while Jabal Druze and
Greater Lebanon had
not been part of the federation at all.
The autonomous sanjak (governate) of Alexandretta in the north-west of the
country is attached to the 'State of Aleppo' in 1923, despite the
Ottomans continuing to
claim it as a Turkish province. In 1925 it is attached directly to Syria
while retaining special administrative status. |
1925 |
Syrian resentment at
French
control finally erupts in the form of the Great Syrian Revolt (otherwise
known as the Great Druze Revolt because it first breaks out in Jabal
Druze). It quickly spreads across all of Syria and
Lebanon with the aim of
kicking out the French. Sultan al-Atrash quickly becomes the revolt's senior
commander and figurehead, although he does not control all factions
involved.
 |
Damascus was attacked during the first year of the
revolt in which notable victories were won against the
poorly-equipped French forces
|
|
|
1925 - 1927 |
Sultan Pasha al-Atrash |
Arab Druze leader who was senior commander during revolt. |
1925 - 1927 |
Despite the best efforts of al-Atrash, and much like the civil war of 2011,
the Syrian revolt is not centrally organised with the result that its efforts
are piecemeal. However, the revolt wins early battles at al-Kafr (on 21 July
1925, the revolt's first battle), al-Mazraa (on 2-3 August 1925), and Salkhad,
al-Musayfirah, and Suwayda. Ultimately, despite a rather shaky, ill-equipped
start, the
French
use hardline and often brutal tactics to crush the revolt. Sultan al-Atrash
survives the conflict (by escaping with fellow rebels to
Transjordan where
he is eventually pardoned), and lives out his life in relative obscurity, dying
at the age of ninety-one in 1982. |
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|
1936 |
France
unities all its separate Syrian mandates, the states of Jabal Druze,
Alawites, and Syria, into a single unified territory called the republic of
Syria. |
|
|
|
1940 - 1941 |
Syria
falls under the control of the Vichy government in occupied
France,
until it is liberated by the
British
together with Free French forces. The Syrians proclaim their independence,
but it takes until 1944 before this proclamation is officially recognised.
Alexandretta has already been lost to
Turkey (in 1939) with
French agreement. |
|
|
|
1946 - 1949 |
Syria
gains full independence from
France
with the withdrawal of the last of the colonial troops, five years after
proclaiming their country independent, and two years after that independence
is recognised. Syria progresses rapidly but continual changes of government
and constitution makes it unstable. in 1948, Syria joins with the other Arab
nations to fight the
Arab-Israeli
War and, with the Israelis generally proving to be victorious, Syria barely
manages to hold onto its own border, losing areas of the Golan Heights by
degrees over subsequent years. The defeat is a trigger (among others) for
a series of military coups.
 |
Colonel Sami al-Hinnaw was the second military ruler of
the newly independent Syria in 1949, which was the first
Arab country to suffer a coup following the war
|
|
|
1949 |
Husni al-Za'im |
Army colonel. Quickly overthrown. |
1949 |
Sami al-Hinnaw |
Army colonel. Quickly overthrown. |
1949 - 1954 |
Adib Shishakli |
Army colonel. Overthrown. |
1951 - 1954 |
Adib
Shishakli launches a second coup in 1951 order to solidify his total control
over the country. He is overthrown in a further coup just three years later.
This time the parliamentary system is restored. |
|
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|
1956 - 1958 |
During the Suez Crisis, Syria imposes martial law. In November of the same
year it launches attacks on Iraq's
oil pipelines and signs a pact with Soviet
Russia
for military equipment and cooperation with the communist state. On 1
February 1958,
Syria and Egypt
agree the United Arab Republic, whereby the two countries merge. |
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1961 - 1962 |
A military coup headed by Abd al-Karim al-Nahlawi on 28 September 1961 causes
the United Arab Republic to be terminated. Syria is controlled by a group of
officers until the leader of the coup launches a second coup in 1962 to seize
power personally. |
1962 |
Abd al-Karim al-Nahlawi |
Former military officer. Quickly overthrown. |
1963 - 1966 |
Following various further coups, emergency rule is instigated under a Baath
Party takeover of the government. The implementation of emergency law is not
rescinded and Syria is again governed by a group of military officers. |
1966 - 1967 |
The
Baath (or Ba'ath) Party stages a coup and clears out all political
opposition in the country. The following year, amid ever-increasing tensions
and acrimonious relations with
Israel,
Egypt
expels the UN peacekeepers from the Sinai and announces a partial blockade
of Israel's access to the Red Sea. Expecting further military action,
several Arab states begin to mobilise their troops. Israel sees this as
reason enough to launch a pre-emptive attack against Egypt,
Iraq,
Jordan,
and Syria, triggering the Six Day War. Jordan loses the West Bank and
East Jerusalem, a third of the kingdom, while Israel also gains the Golan
Heights and the ancient region of
Bashan
from Syria, and the Gaza Strip from Egypt, and also temporarily occupies
the Sinai peninsula for a second time. |
1966 - 1970 |
Nureddin al-Atassi |
'President'. Jailed. |
1970 |
The
Assad family comes to power in Syria after former defence minister Hafez al-Assad
launches a bloodless coup known as the Corrective Revolution. Al-Assad
claims the title of president but effectively rules as an authoritarian
dictator over a police state. His family members gain several prominent
positions in authority.
 |
Hafez al-Assad, around the time of his sudden rise to power in
Syria as part of the 'Corrective Revolution'
|
|
|
1970 - 2000 |
Hafez
al-Assad |
Dictator. |
1973 |
The
Yom Kippur War (alternatively known as the Arab-Israeli War of
1973) sees the combined forces of
Egypt
and Syria simultaneously attack
Israel during its
highest holiday.
Jordan does not
actively participate in the conflict as it is still licking the wounds
suffered in 1967. The Syrian army is held and repulsed by the Israelis
while the Egyptian armies take longer to pin back. The war ends in an
imposed ceasefire, supported by the
USA
(backers of the Israelis) and Soviet
Russia
(supporting the Arab forces) as tension rises between the two superpowers. |
1975 - 1990 |
The Lebanese
Civil War breaks out, pitching Christian, Moslem, and Palestinian groups
against each other as they vie for control, with involvement from Syria and
Israel further confusing an often violent situation with continually
shifting loyalties. |
1983 - 1984 |
A
heart attack places al-Assad in hospital, so he creates a six-man governing
council to take charge, with his younger brother, Rifaat al-Assad, a member.
In 1984. with rumours that Hafez is dead, or nearly so, Rifaat attempts
to seize power. Hafez is forced to rise from his sick bed to take charge
again, and Rifaat is exiled to
France. |
1991 |
Syria
joins the
US-led
First Gulf War to oust
Iraq from its occupation
of Kuwait. |
|
Basil al-Assad |
Son. Groomed for succession but killed in car crash in
1994. |
2000 - Present |
Bashar
al-Assad |
Brother. Dictator. |
2000 |
The
accession of Basher al-Assad signals a very gradual shift towards political
reform and an increase in civil liberties, but progress is painfully slow at
first and eventually appears to stall completely. |
2011 - Present |
A wave of popular protests against a deeply unpopular and dictatorial
government in Tunisia
forces the president to flee the country, paving the way for fresh
elections and a new start. The protests strike a chord in Arabs across
North Africa and the Middle East, and similar protests are triggered in
Bahrain,
Egypt,
Libya,
Morocco,
Syria and Yemen. Little information about Syria's protests leaks out of the
secretive state, but there are certainly calls for reform, some of which
Bashar al-Assad appears to agree to introduce. The call for reform intensifies,
and breaks out into open civil war which, after an initial onslaught and loss
of territory, Bashar al-Assad survives. He is able to secure his key territory
and begin a slow fight-back, edging the mixed bag of opposition groups back
over successive years.
 |
Isis militia carrying their black flag suddenly launched the
sweeping conquest of large areas of northern Iraq in 2014,
proclaiming the caliphate in June 2014
|
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|
Many of the opposition groups include an increasing number of hardline
Muslims, some of which have links to the self-proclaimed freedom fighter
group al-Qaeda (prescribed as terrorists by much of the civilised world),
while others support the recreation of the Islamic caliphate. The position
of caliph descends directly from the Prophet Muhammad himself, and had last
been held by the Abbasids
before being destroyed in 1258. The
notion of reviving it seems initially to be a pipedream, but sudden massive
gains of Iraqi territory in early 2014 makes it a reality, and the
Islamic State is
proclaimed on 30 June 2014. |
2015 |
The
organisation that goes by the self-proclaimed name of
Islamic State continues
to export terrorism from its main base in northern Syria, an area over which
Bashar al-Assad has absolutely no control. At least two serious atrocities
are pinned to their door, the first being the massacre in June of thirty-eight
people in
Tunisia,
when a gunman opens fire on tourists who are staying in the popular resort
of Port El Kantaoui, just to the north of Sousse. Thirty of the dead are
British.
The second act takes place on 13 November, when 130 people are killed and up
to 368 injured during a series of coordinated attacks across the
French
capital of Paris. |
2016 - 2017 |
Having
recovered from the initial shock of
Islamic State launching
itself across northern Syria and
Iraq almost unopposed,
both states have recovered and rallied. Syria, with
Russian
support, is largely winning its own civil war. Iraq has reorganised and
revitalised its own army, while the Kurds in the north can always be
guaranteed to provide reliable service and organisation. The Iraqis and
Kurds launch effective campaigns around Mosul and in the northern Sinjar
Province respectively, while the
US-backed
Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) conduct the Raqqa campaign in northern Syria.
By July 2017 Mosul is cleared of IS fighters while they continue to hold
firm in Tal Afar and three towns in the western province of Anbar. Raqqa,
the IS capital for three years, falls in October 2017. |
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