|
|
Persia
The Persians (or Parsu, Parsua, Parsuash, Parsumash, from which the
modern Fārs gained its name) were a later grouping of
Indo-Europeans
who migrated, probably along the River Oxus for part of its length, into
Iran. They settled to the east of ancient
Elam during
the period of instability and migration which occurred throughout the Middle
East between 1200-900 BC. During this same period other tribal groups such as
the Aramaeans and the
Sea Peoples were causing
chaos further west.
The Persians drifted in from the east alongside other similar groups
which included the
Alans,
Mannaeans, and
Medians, probably via
Sogdiana
and Transoxiana, not long after other Indo-European groups had entered
India. That
probably made them descendants of Indo-Europeans who had bordered and
integrated themselves into the Bronze Age culture known as the
Bactria-Margiana
Archaeological Complex, or Oxus Civilisation. This had emerged between
roughly 2200-1700 BC in Central Asia in modern
Turkmenistan
and towards the Oxus, and although originally indigenous was almost
certainly subject to a slow 'invasion' of Indo-European tribes in much the
same way as the
Pelasgians
of Greece were largely subsumed by the
Mycenaeans.
The mythical early Persian kings seem to rule either in these areas around
the Oxus or in parts of eastern Iran. In fact, one of the names given by the
Thiruvalangadu copperplate grant of the
Chola
family in India, Aryaman (shortly after around 1000 BC), is the source of
the name 'Iran'. This particular Aryaman was not the one who gave his name
to that land, but another (Persian) Indo-European who also bore the name
did just that.
The Persian capital until 559 BC was Pasargadae in Fars, the modern region which
was the heartland of ancient Persia. Increasing dominance saw them move that
capital to the former Elamite capital at Susa. In effect, they were Elam's
successors, inheriting their language and culture, especially during the
Achaemenid period.
(Additional information by Jo Amdahl and Edward Dawson, and from Empire
of Gold: Foundations, Jo Amdahl, with reference to a large number of
original and secondary sources that are included in the 'Persia and
Eastwards' section of the
Sources page.) |
c.1000 - 559 BC |
The
Persians are under the overlordship of
Elam,
although in the later stages
Assyria and
Media also claim some control
over the region. As Elam's influence weakens, the
Achaemenid Persians begin to assert
their own authority in the region.
Later myth ascribes a dynasty of rulers to this period, as described in the
Shahnameh ('The Book of Kings'), a poetic opus which is written in about AD
1000 but which accesses older works and perhaps elements of an oral tradition.
The Kayanian dynasty of kings are also the heroes of the Avesta, which forms
the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. This faith itself had been founded along
the banks of the River Oxus, which had probably also formed part of the
migratory route used by the
Indo-European Persians as they entered Iran. |
|
Fereydun / Faridun |
Ruled a 'world empire'. |
|
Manuchehr |
Great-grandson. First of the legendary kings or shahs of
Iran. |
|
Nowzar |
Son and early king. Killed by Afrasiab of Turan. |
|
Kai Kobad / Kei Qobád |
Kayanian dynasty founder who united the Aryan tribes. |
|
According to tradition, probbly oral until it was written down in the
eleventh century AD, Kai Kobad lives in the Alborz Mountains, a range
which stretches from the borders of modern
Armenia, across
northern Iran to the border between
Turkmenistan and Afghanistan.
This seems to support the evidence of a Persian migration from further north
and east, and it may be used to show that they have not yet fully settled in
Persia itself. |
|
7th cent BC |
Kai Kavoos / Kay Kāvus |
Mythical early Persian king. |
|
The wife
of Kai Kavoos, Sudabeh, attempts to persuade his son, Sijavus, to betray the
king in return for sex, but Sijavus refuses and goes into voluntary exile in
Sogdiana.
His son, Kai Khosrow, is chosen by Kai Kavoos as his successor in Persia. |
|
Kai Khosrow |
Son of Sijavus. Later king of Persia. Reigned for about 60
years. |
|
Kai Lohrasb / Luarsab |
Chosen successor of Kai Khosrow. |
|
Kai Garshasp / Goshtasp |
|
|
Kai Bahman / Wahman |
Son of Esfandiyar and grandson of Garshasp. |
|
The
Bahamani
sultanate of the fourteenth century AD, located on the Deccan plateau
in central
India, claims
descent from Kai Bahman. |
|
Kai Darab / Dara |
Son. |
675 BC |
At a time which may fit in with the end of the Kayanian kings,
the Persians begin to unite under the (legendary) founder of their new dynasty.
Many scholars of Persian history now believe that Achaemenes is a fictional common
ancestor who is used to legitimise the rule of Darius I from 521 BC. Darius goes
so far as to install inscriptions on the unfinished palace of Cyrus the Great at
Pasargadae that reads 'I am Cyrus, the king, the Achaemenid.' No record of
Achaemenes can be dated earlier than the reign of Darius I. Nonetheless, the name
'Achaemenid' has been commonly accepted for the line of Persian kings beginning
with Darius I. Some sources use the term Achaemenid to refer to the entire line
of early Persian rulers, including both Cyrus and Cambyses (600 BC). |
675 - 640 BC |
Achaemenes
Teispes |
Vassal of the Medes. |
644 BC |
Assyria
devastates Elam and only
a fragmented kingdom survives. |
640 - 600 BC |
Cyrus I |
Vassal of the
Medes. |
c.620 BC |
Media gains a level of control
in the region as Assyria
is destroyed. |
600 - 559 BC |
Cambyses
(Kambuzya of Anshan) |
Last
Median-controlled Persian king. |
559 BC |
Cambyses marries Mandane, (a) daughter of Astyages of
Media. Their son is Cyrus,
later known as 'the Great', while Mandane is also the niece of Amyhia, queen of
Babylon. Cyrus
ends the vassalage of the Persians by defeating the Medes and then he swiftly
creates an empire. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Achaemenid
Persia (Persian Empire)
559 - 330 BC
While Cyrus the Great built the Persian empire from its small beginnings in
south-western Iran, Darius I is thought to have been a usurper of the Persian
throne. Going back to the titular founder of the dynasty, many scholars of
Achaemenid history now believe that Achaemenes was a fictional common ancestor
who was used to legitimise Darius' rule. Darius went so far as to install
inscriptions on the unfinished palace of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae that
read 'I am Cyrus, the king, the Achaemenid.' No record of Achaemenes can be
dated earlier than the reign of Darius I. Nonetheless, the name 'Achaemenid'
has been commonly accepted for the line of Persian kings beginning with
Darius I. Some sources use the term Achaemenid to refer to the entire line
of early Persian rulers, including both Cyrus and Cambyses.
Each ruler is usually known by the Greek form of his name, but the original
Persian versions are included in parenthesis.
(Additional information by Jo Amdahl, from Empire of Gold: Foundations,
Jo Amdahl, from The Marshals of Alexander's Empire, Waldemar Heckel,
from Alexander the Great and Hernán Cortés: Ambiguous Legacies of
Leadership, Justin D Lyons, and from External Link:
Zoroastrian
Heritage, K E Eduljee, with reference to a large number of original and
secondary sources that are included in the 'Persia and Eastwards' section of
the Sources
page.) |
559 - 530 BC |
Cyrus
(Kurush) II the Great |
Son
of Cambyses. Created the Achaemenid empire. |
559 - 530 BC |
A vigorous ruler, one of Cyrus' very first acts is to move the Persian capital to
the former Elamite capital,
Susa, in 559 BC. Then, from 553 BC, he sets about releasing the Persians from
vassalage. Herodotus tells the story of how the
Medians lose control of the Persians
when Cyrus rebels. In 550 BC (or 549 BC) Cyrus wins a decisive victory and Astyages
of the Medes is captured by his own nobles and handed over. The sources conflict
when it comes to explaining the precise relationship between Cyrus and Astyages.
According to some, Cyrus is his son-in-law, while others state that he is his
grandson and the legal heir of Media. The two versions are not necessarily in
conflict with each other. Cyrus is Astyages' grandson through the latter's
marriage to a Persian princess. In addition, Cyrus has also married his aunt,
Astyages' daughter, Amyhia (not to be confused with his sister of the same name!),
in order to cement his claim to the Median throne.
The defeat of the Medes opens the floodgates for Cyrus with a wave of conquests,
beginning with Cilicia in
549 BC. Harpagus, a Median of the royal house and the main cause of Astyages'
defeat, commands Cyrus' army in Anatolia, conquering it between 547-546 BC.
Taken during this campaign are
Caria,
Lycia,
Lydia,
Paphlagonia,
Phrygia, and
Tabal (Cappadocia), and Harpagus
and his descendants reign thereafter in Caria and Lycia as satraps. Eastern
Iran falls during a more drawn-out campaign between c.546-540 BC, during which
the further eastern regions of
Arachosia, Bactria, Drangiana,
Gandhara,
Khwarazm,
and Margiana are also added to the empire, although records for these
campaigns are characteristically sparse.
 |
|
This Achaemenid (Persian empire) palace decoration stood at
Babylon and was transported to Berlin upon being rediscoveed by
archaeologists
|
|
|
|
Macedonia
is taken in 542 BC, and Cyrus is virtually invited into
Babylon (539 BC).
This also gains him the remainder of Elam's territory, plus
Phoenicia and the
Mediterranean coast are captured (although Arabia and Cilicia are subsequently lost).
Typically the end of Cyrus' reign is spent in military activity in Central Asia
where, according to Herodotus, he dies in battle in 530 BC fighting the
Massagetae. |
530 - 523 BC |
Cambyses (Kambujiya) II |
Son. |
525 - 522 BC |
The Persians conquer
Egypt,
creating the 27th Dynasty. They add
Cyprus
to the empire in the same year.
However, it seems that the uncrowned Pharaoh Psamtik is not immediately captured.
Instead he, or the bulk of his forces, seek refuge around the Dachla Oasis.
Cambyses follows him with an army of 50,000 men and, according to Herodotus,
the entire army disappears in the desert, presumably overcome by a sand storm
(around 524 BC).
A highly favourable modern theory is that this story was created by
Cambyses' successor to mask an embarrassing defeat. Psamtik manages to
reconquer a large part of Egypt and is crowned pharaoh in the capital,
Memphis. Darius I, ends the Egyptian 'revolt' with a good deal of bloodshed
two years after Cambyses' defeat, in 522 BC. |
522 - 521 BC |
Smerdis / Bardia
/ Bardiya |
Usurper
called Gaumata using a royal name. Murdered by Darius. |
521 - 485 BC |
Darius (Darayavahush) I the Great |
First 27th
Egyptian Dynasty ruler. |
521 BC |
Darius kills the usurper Gaumata and takes control of the empire, taking
great pains to legitimise his rule by installing an inscription at
Pasargadae to record his 'descent' from the legendary founder of the Persian
dynasty. He also regulates the system of control within the empire. Instead
of a number of polities with different systems of rule, he creates a uniform
structure of about twenty provinces. These are often called satrapies, after
the Greek interpretation of the original Persian word for 'protecting the
kingdom'. He extends the satrapy of
Egypt
to include Cyrene. |
516 - 515 BC |
Darius embarks on a military campaign into the lands east of the empire. He
marches through Aria and Bactria,
and then to Gandhara
and Taxila. By 515 BC he is conquering lands around the Indus Valley before
returning via Arachosia
(modern southern Afghanistan
and northern and central
Pakistan,
and perhaps extending as far as the Indus) and Drangiana. A subsequent
cuneiform inscriptions set up by Darius lists the nations that comprise the
Persian empire. They include three nations using
Saka as a
prefix to their names: Saka Haumavarga, Saka Tigrakhauda, and Saka Paradraya.
 |
|
Saka Tikrakhauda (otherwise known as 'Scythians' who in this case can be
more precisely identified as Sakas) depicted on a frieze
at Persepolis in Achaemenid Persia, which would have been the
greatest military power in the region at this time
|
|
|
513 - 512 BC |
The Persians
enter northern Greece, conquering
Thrace south
of the Danube. They hold onto it for about fifty years, possibly until they
are forced out of
Macedonia
by Alexander I. |
500 BC |
Darius oversees
the completion of a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea. |
490 BC |
In revenge for a rebellion by the Greek cities on the Aegean coast and on
Cyprus
that had taken between 499-494 to subdue, Darius decides to invade Greece.
He is decisively defeated at the Battle of
Marathon by a force of Greeks under Miltiades. |
485 - 465 BC |
Xerxes (Xshayarsha) I |
Son. Murdered (by
Artabanus?). |
|
Darius |
Son
and heir. Murdered (by Artabanus?). |
480 - 479 BC |
Invading Greece in 480 BC, Xerxes is swiftly engaged by
Athens
and
Sparta in the Vale of Tempe, and then stymied by a mixed force of Greeks
led by Sparta at Thermopylae. Athens then defeats the Persian navy at
Salamis, and after Xerxes returns home, his army is decisively defeated at
the battle of Plataea and kicked out of
Greece.
Xerxes is later murdered, as is his son and heir, Darius. Whether he is
responsible or not, Xerxes' chief
officer, Artabanus, takes control of the empire until he, too, is killed,
this time by
Artaxerxes I. |
465 - 464 BC |
Artabanus the
Hyrcanian |
Regent or usurper. Former chief officer under Xerxes I. |
464 - 424 BC |
Artaxerxes
(Artaxshassa) I Longimanus |
Son of Xerxes I. |
446 BC |
Artaxerxes appoints Nehemiah, his Jewish cup-bearer, as the governor of
Judea. |
424 - 423 BC |
Xerxes II |
Claimant. |
424 - 423 BC |
Sogdianus |
Claimant. |
423 - 404 BC |
Darius II |
Last 27th
Egyptian
Dynasty ruler. |
411 - 409 BC |
The
Cypriot city state of
Salamis
breaks away from Persian control. Two years later a
Median rebellion against Darius
II is less successful, being very short-lived. |
404 BC |
Egypt
breaks away from Persian control. |
404 - 359 BC |
Artaxerxes II Mnemon |
Son. |
401 - 395 BC |
Cyrus, satrap of
Asia Minor, attempts to revolt, mobilising an army and ten thousand
Greek mercenaries to attack his brother. Defeat leads to his death in
October 401 BC at the Battle of Cunaxa. In 395 BC, Artaxerxes initially
backs the Greek city states of Thebes,
Athens,
Corinth, and Argos against
Sparta in the Corinthian War. |
391 - 381 BC |
Persia recovers
Salamis
in 381 BC following the short-lived Ionian revolt. |
387 BC |
Persia recaptures Lycia from
Athens. |
385 BC |
Satrap Camissares of Khilakku
is killed in the Persian war against the Cadusii, a tribe that lives in the
Iranian mountains on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. |
359 - 338 BC |
Artaxerxes III Ochus |
Son. |
358 BC |
The Phoenician subject city of
Sidon on the Mediterranean coast rebels, but
the rebellion is crushed in the same year. |
350 BC |
An attempt in
Assyria to assert independence ends in failure and retribution by the
Persians. |
343 BC |
Artaxerxes re-conquers
Egypt,
but this second Persian occupation of the country is short-lived. |
338 - 336 BC |
Artaxerxes
IV Arses (Arsha) |
Son. |
336 - 330 BC |
Darius
III Codomannus |
Nephew. Murdered
by the satrap of Bactria. |
334 - 330 BC |
Persia is conquered by the
Greek
Empire under Alexander the Great. The eastern province of
Bactria is used as
the base for resistance by Bassus. As well as being Bactria's former satrap,
he now styles himself Artaxerxes V, king of Asia, and it takes Alexander two
more years to fully conquer the region. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Argead Dynasty
The Argead were the ruling family and founders of
Macedonia
who reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his two
successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic sections.
Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern Persia, the
Greek Empire ruled the region until Alexander's death in 323 BC and the
subsequent regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors held
no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals who really held control
of Alexander's empire. Following that latter period and several wars, the region
was left in the hands of the
Seleucid empire from
305 BC.
(Additional information from External Links:
Encyclopædia
Britannica, and Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at
Livius.org.) |
330 - 323 BC |
Alexander III the Great |
King of
Macedonia. Conquered
Persia. |
323 - 317 BC |
Philip III Arrhidaeus |
Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander the Great. |
317 - 310 BC |
Alexander IV of Macedonia |
Infant son of Alexander the Great and Roxana. |
323 - 320? BC |
The former Persian empire is divided into separate satrapies.
The Parthian section of conquered Persia is governed by the
Greek
general, Phrataphernes,
Babylonia and northern
Mesopotamia by Arcesilas
and Archon, and Susiana
by Antigenes, while the other provinces each receive their own
satraps. |
323 - 320 BC |
Peucestas |
Greek satrap of Persis. |
323 - 320 BC |
Tlepolemus |
Greek satrap of Carmania. |
323 - 320 BC |
Atropates |
Greek satrap of northern
Media. |
323 - 315 BC |
Peithon |
Greek satrap of
Media. |
320 - 305 BC |
Alexander's general, Seleucus, governs Persia during the period of the
Diadochi Wars, although the
Empire of Antigonus
captures areas of his rule between 315-312 BC. |
|
320 - 305 BC |
Seleucus |
Greek satrap of
Babylonia. |
305 BC |
The
Fourth War of the Diadochi sees
Media and Persia ruled
by the Hellenic
Seleucid empire from
Babylon and then
Antioch, in Syria.
The satraps of Media and Persia or Persis (the region as opposed to the former
empire) answer directly to the Seleucid ruler, although precisely how much
control is wielded from Antioch is unclear. In essence the satraps in the
eastern regions operate as they see fit, within certain limits. |
|
|
|
256 BC |
Andragoras, the Greek satrap of Parthia,
declares independence from
Seleucid Greek rule
at the same time as Bactria. |
|
|
|
? - 220 BC |
Alexander |
Seleucid satrap of
Persis. Brother of Molon of Media. |
223 - 221 BC |
Antiochus III sets about rebuilding the
Seleucid empire
which is shown to be very weak at this time.
Media and Persis immediately
stage a a joint rebellion in 223 BC under their satraps, the brothers Molon
and Alexander. Ill-advised in the matter, Antiochus sends generals east to
deal with them while he embarks on a farcical attack on
Egypt
to regain lost territory in the south. Both campaigns end in utter defeat.
In the north, Achaeus, Antiochus' cousin, records the only immediate success
by forcing
Pergamum back to
its original borders.
Antiochus deals personally with the eastern rebellion in 221 BC. It
collapses in the face of his advance, with Molon's forces deserting him.
Lesser Media under another rebel, Artabazanes, also buckles and Atropatene
in north-western Media is captured. |
|
|
|
206 - 205 BC |
Seleucid
ruler Antiochus III returns from his expedition into the eastern regions by
passing through the Iranian provinces of
Arachosia,
Drangiana,
and Carmania.
He arrives in Persis in 205 BC and receives tribute of five hundred talents
of silver from the citizens of Gerrha, a mercantile state on the east coast
of the Persian Gulf. Having re-established a strong Seleucid presence in the
east which includes an array of vassal states, Antiochus now adopts the ancient
Achaemenid title
of 'great king', which the Greeks copy by referring to him as 'Basileus Megas'. |
|
|
|
164 BC |
The Arsacids have been gradually extending their control over the eastern lands
of former Persia, and
Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV now campaigns against them. He recovers
lost income from the region and forces the defector, Artaxias of
Armenia, to
recognise his suzerainty. Then he founds the city of Antioch on the Persian
Gulf, sets out on an expedition to the Arabian coast and, at the end of 164
BC, dies of illness at Tabae (or Gabae, probably modern Isfahan) in Persis. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Arsacid (Parthian) Persia
248 BC - AD 224
The region known as Parthia lay to the north of Persia itself, nestled between
the Greek satrapy of
Bactria and the
southern third of the Caspian Sea. Following a declaration of independence
by the resident Greek satrap of Parthia, the region was slowly liberated from
Seleucid rule by
Parni tribesmen who emerged out of obscurity on the Iranian Plateau and
took over north-eastern and central Persia while the Seleucids weakened
in the west. By 130 BC the Parthians, as they came to refer to themselves,
had conquered all of Persia, and in 126 BC they
took Babylonia.
The rise of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty also saw Bactria cut off from the
Seleucids, and an independent Greco-Bactrian kingdom was declared there. The
Bactrian king, Diodotus II, concluded a peace treaty with Arsaces to forestall
a Seleucid re-conquest of both Persia and Bactria.
The dating of the Arsacids is uncertain, as is the sequence of rulers in some
cases, and is largely known from coins alone. Not all pretenders and temporary
rulers are mentioned in this list, though a fair number of overlapping reigns
do seem to be mentioned.
(Additional information from Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius
Trogus: Books 11-12, Volume 1, Marcus Junianus Justinus, John Yardley,
& Waldemar Heckel, and from External Links: the
Ancient
History Encyclopaedia, and from Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at
Livius.org.) |
|
323 - 320? BC |
Phrataphernes |
Greek satrap of Parthia &
Hyrcania. |
|
|
|
|
fl 256 - c.238 BC |
Andragoras |
Greek satrap of Parthia. Killed by the Parni. |
c.256 BC |
Andragora declares independence from
Seleucid Greek rule
at the same time as Bactria. |
c.250 - 248 BC |
Areas
of Persia are
slowly liberated from Greek rule by tribesmen from the Iranian Plateau. |
c.250 - 211? BC |
Arsaces I of the
Parni People |
|
248 - c.238 BC |
Parthia
secures independence from
Seleucid rule, and the
Parthians fully establish themselves with the death of the Greek satrap and king
of Parthia. |
235 - 229 BC |
Antiochus Heirax continues his campaign to wrest the
Seleucid empire from
his brother by defeating him at the battle of Ancyra in 235 BC, leaving Anatolia
outside of Seleucid power. Seleucus II then marches into Parthia, intent on
regaining that, but is forced to be satisfied with a peace agreement. Arsaces
I is recognised as king of Parthia. The tide of Seleucid turns when Attalus of
Pergamum defeats
Antiochus at the Battle of Harpasus in 229 BC. |
? - 211 BC |
Tiridates |
|
c.211 - 191 BC |
Artabanus I (?) |
|
c.200 BC |
The
Persian 'ancient batteries', basic electric cells, are dated to this point
in time, although their function and origin remain unclear to this day.
 |
|
The kingdom of Bactria (shown in white) was at the height of its
power around 200-180 BC, with fresh conquests being made in the
south-east, encroaching into India just as the Mauryan empire was
on the verge of collapse, while the Parthians were only
beginning to expand their power and area of control (click on
map to show full sized)
|
|
|
c.211 - 191 BC |
Arsaces II (?) |
|
212 - 209 BC |
Having defeated his rebellious cousin in Anatolia, Antiochus III of the
Seleucid empire
concentrates on the northern and eastern provinces of the empire. Xerxes
of Armenia is
persuaded to acknowledge his supremacy in 212 BC, while in 209 BC
Antiochus invades Parthia. Its capital, Hecatompylos, is occupied and
Antiochus forces his way into
Hyrcania,
with the result that the Parthian king, Arsaces II, is forced to sue for
peace. |
c.191 - 176 BC |
Phriapitius |
|
c.191 - 176 BC |
Priapatius |
|
185 BC |
The
Parthians expand into eastern Iran at the expense of the Seleucid ruler,
Seleucus IV. His reign is otherwise uneventful, mostly due to the disastrous
defeat of 188 BC. He is assassinated by his own chief minister, Heliodorus,
allowing his brother to seize the throne. |
c.176 - 171 BC |
Phraates I |
|
171 - 139 BC |
Mithridates I |
(Not the same as the king
of Pontus.) |
164 BC |
The
Arsacids have been gradually extending their control over the eastern lands
of former Persia, and
Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV now campaigns against them. He recovers
lost income from the region and forces the defector, Artaxias of
Armenia, to
recognise his suzerainty. Then he founds the city of Antioch on the Persian
Gulf, sets out on an expedition to the Arabian coast and, at the end of 164
BC, dies of illness at Tabae (or Gabae, probably modern Isfahan) in
Persis. |
141 - 139 BC |
A very able Arsacid king,
Mithridates conquers Seleucid
territory in
Media (141 BC) and also
more territory in Iran (139 BC). |
c.139 - 126 BC |
Phraates II |
Son. |
138 - 126 BC |
In the core Parthian homeland, Phraates comes into conflict with western
elements of the
Indo-Scythians. The Parthians are defeated in several battles, the last
of which ends with the death of Phraates himself. |
c.126 BC |
Bacasis / Bagasis |
Son of Phriapatius. |
c.128 - 124 BC |
Artabanus II (I) |
|
c.126 - 124 BC |
Having already caused the death of Artabanus' predecessor, the
Indo-Scythians
continue to press Parthian borders for territory. Artabanus is killed in
one such encounter. |
c.121 BC |
? |
Unnamed king with
the throne name of Arsaces XI. |
129 - 126 BC |
The
Parthians invade and conquer
Mesopotamia and
Babylonia,
dethroning and killing the Seleucid
king. |
121 - 87 BC |
Mithridates II the Great |
Cousin of Phraates II. |
115 BC |
With Parthian territory having been harried for years by the
Indo-Scythians,
Mithridates II is finally able to take control of the situation. First he defeats
the Yuezhi in Sogdiana
in 115 BC, and then he defeats the Scythians in Parthia and Seistan around 100 BC.
After their defeat, the Yuezhi tribes concentrate on consolidation in
Bactria. |
92 - 90 BC |
A treaty
is formed with
Rome.
Within two years the Parthians take control of eastern Iran. |
c.90 - 80 BC |
Gotarzes I |
|
c.80 - 78 BC |
Orodes I |
|
|
c.80 BC |
On the eastern edge of Parthian territory, the Yeuh Chi (Tocharians)
continue to drive the Indo-Scythian
Sakas southwards from
Central Asia. In turn, the Parthians divert the Sakas from Persian territory into
Indo-Greek
Gandhara,
ensuring that their future lies in entering
India. |
c.77 - 70 BC |
Sinatruces |
|
c.70 - 58 BC |
Phraates III |
|
|
c.70 BC |
Indo-Scythians expel the
Indo-Greeks
from Arachosia but subsequently lose the
region to the Parthians. Parthian rule seems to be limited and perhaps does not
include the entire region.
 |
|
By the period between 100-50 BC the Greek kingdom of Bactria
had fallen and the remaining Indo-Greek territories (shown in
white) had been squeezed towards Eastern Punjab. India was
partially fragmented, and the once tribal Sakas were coming to
the end of a period of domination of a large swathe of territory
in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and north-western India. The
dates within their lands (shown in yellow) show their defeats
of the Greeks that had gained them those lands, but they were
very soon to be overthrown in the north by the Kushans while
still battling for survival against the Satvahanas of India
(click on map to show full sized)
|
|
|
|
66 BC |
The
Parthians take control of
Harran. |
c.58 - 39 BC |
Orodes II |
|
53 BC |
The Battle of Carrhae
(Harran).
Triumvir Crassus is killed and 34,000 legionnaires are captured or killed. Some captured
Romans may
later be used to fight against
China,
while others are sold as slaves by the thousand in China and
India, as well
as closer to home. |
c.57 - 55 BC |
Mithridates III |
|
|
Pacorus I |
(d.38 BC) |
c.40 - 3 BC |
Phraates IV |
Son of Orodes. |
|
40 - 37 BC |
Parthians attack and occupy areas of
Roman
Syria, including the city of
Bashan. |
c.30 - 25 BC |
Tiridates |
|
3 BC - AD 3 |
Phraates V |
|
2 - 4 |
Queen Musa |
|
c.4 |
The empire gradually breaks into smaller kingdoms that remain loosely united for 200 years. |
4 - 7 |
Orodes III |
|
c.7 - 12 |
Vonones I |
Became king of
Armenia 15-16. |
c.10 |
The
Indo-Greek
kingdom disappears under
Indo-Scythian
pressure. It seems to be Rajuvula, kshatrapa of Mathura, who invades what
is virtually the last free Indo-Greek territory in the eastern Punjab, and kills
the Greek ruler, Strato II and his son. Pockets of Greek population probably
remain for some centuries under the subsequent rule of the
Kushans and
Indo-Parthian.
By now the Parthians already seem to have captured Kashmir from the
Indo-Scythians, relieving them of an important prize. |
c.10 - 38 |
Artabanus III (II) |
His son became king of
Armenia 34-35. |
|
c.20 |
The Parthian vassal in the east of Persia, Gondophares, ventures
furthers east and establishes an independent
Indo-Parthian kingdom in
Afghanistan and northern
India. |
c.39 - 45 |
Vardanes I |
|
c.43 - 50 |
Gotarzes II |
|
c.50 - 76 |
Vologeses I |
|
|
Vologeses I is brother to Pacorus of Media,
and Tiridates II of Armenia.
He is also the father of Tiridates I of Armenia. |
77 - 78 |
Vologeses II |
|
77 - 86 |
Pacorus II |
|
79 - 80 |
Artabanus IV (III) |
|
89 - 90 |
Vologeses II |
|
89 - 90 |
Oroses |
|
92 - 95 |
Pacorus II |
|
|
|
|
c.100 |
The
Kushans
capture former Bactrian
Arachosia from the
Indo-Parthians
and expend their borders right up to the edge of Persia. |
108 - 127 |
Oroses |
Restored? |
111 - 146 |
Vologeses III |
|
114 - 117 |
The
Romans
under Trajan occupy
Mesopotamia right up to the former
Elamite capital at Susa (now the
Parthian capital), but the conquests are given up following
the emperor's death. |
113 - 114 |
Pacorus II |
|
c.130 - 147 |
Mithridates IV |
|
148 - 190 |
Vologeses IV |
|
190 - 206 |
Vologeses V |
|
207 - 221 |
Vologeses VI |
|
c.213 - 227 |
Artbanus V (IV) |
|
224 |
Weakened by decades
of war with
Rome, the Parthians are
overthrown by a nobleman called Sassa, from the Iranian
Highlands. |
c.226 - 227 |
Artavasdes |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sassanid Persia
AD 224 - 642
A nobleman from the Iranian Highlands overthrew the
regional control of his masters in AD 224 and became shah of Persia. His
relationship to the founder of the dynasty is unknown, especially as records
covering this period in Persia are conflicting and somewhat sketchy. Some
sources claim him as the father of Papak, but he might easily have been a
rival or more distant relative.
(Additional information by Sina Heravi and Edward Dawson, and from
External Links:
University of
Leicester, and Listverse.) |
|
? |
Sassa / Sassan |
|
|
? - 208 |
Papak / Babak / Pāpağ |
King of Persis. |
208 - 241 |
Ardashir I |
Son. Governor of
Persis. Shah from 224.
Kushanshah
(c.230). |
|
c.230 - c.250 |
The
Kushans
of the north and west of
India
are toppled by the Sassanids, who gain Tokharistan (former
Bactria) and
Arachosia as a result.
In the latter region, centred on the south-east of modern
Afghanistan, the Sassanids
create a buffer state which is governed by the
Kushanshahs. |
|
232 - 242 |
The Sassanids briefly take control of
Harran. |
238 - 252 |
Ardashir conquers Armenia and
persecutes the Christians there. |
241 - 272 |
Shapur I |
Defeated and captured
Roman Emperor
Valerian in 260. |
c.241 |
A high priest known as Kartir Hangirpe, or Karder, who serves to at least
three of the early Sassanid rulers starting with Shapur, begins the process
of persecuting non-Zoroastrians throughout the Persian domains. This
persecution of religious minorities is ended under the accession of Narses. |
|
c.245 |
In
around this year, Shapur devolves direct rule in Afghanistan by creating a
buffer state which is governed by the
Kushanshahs. |
|
256 |
The Sassanids capture the
Roman
fortress city of Dura in eastern
Syria. Part
of their efforts to take the fortress involves digging a deep mine under the
city wall and a tower. The Romans tunnel from the other side to intercept
them and a shaft is created around the intercept point. The precise outcome
is unknown.
In the early 1900s, archaeologist Robert du Mesnil du Buisson discovers a
pile of nineteen Roman bodies in the mines. Only one Persian body is nearby.
In 2009 Simon James of the University of Leicester theorises that the
Persians hear the Romans digging and ignite a fire to meet them and the
Romans open the shaft between the two mines, possibly to vent the smoke.
Sulphur and bitumen is discovered in the mine, possibly making the Roman
bodies the earliest victims of chemical warfare to be discovered.
 |
|
The city of Dura-Europos had been founded in 300 BC by the
Seleucid Greeks, seized by the Arsacids and then by the Romans,
and was then destroyed almost six hundred years after its
creation by a drawn-out border conflict between Rome and the
Sassanids
|
|
|
|
James believes that the Persians deliberately throw these chemicals onto the
fire to create deadly fumes, which become sulphuric acid in the lungs of
their enemies. The one dead Persian soldier is probably the fire's starter
and is unable to get out in time. Once the smoke clears, the Persians
quickly pile the bodies like a shield into the countermine and destroy it.
Their mining efforts do not collapse the walls, but the Persians eventually
get in anyway. They kill some of the residents and deport the rest to
Persia. The
Seleucid-founded
Dura is abandoned forever. |
272 - 273 |
Hormizd I |
Son.
Kushanshah (from
c.270, and perhaps after 273). |
272 - 276 |
Bahram
/ Varahran I |
Brother. |
276 - 293 |
Bahram II |
Son. |
293 |
Bahram III |
Son. |
294 - 302 |
Narses
/ Nerseh / Narseh |
Uncle. Defeated by
Rome in 298. |
|
296 |
The Sassanids regain
Harran and make
it a permanent possession. Around this time they seemingly 'overthrow' the
Sakas too, although this seems to be more of a check of Saka power which
is already beginning to fade. |
302 - 309 |
Hormizd II |
Son.
Kushanshah
(c.295-c.300). |
309 - 379 |
Shapur II |
Son. |
325 |
To prevent Afghanistan from drifting entirely towards separatism, Shapur
assumes direct control of the southern areas while the
Kushanshahs
continue to rule in the north. |
379 - 383 |
Ardashir II |
|
383 - 388 |
Shapur III |
|
387 |
Persia and
Rome partition Armenia
between them, with Persia gaining the eastern half. |
388 - 399 |
Bahram IV |
|
399 - 421 |
Yazdagird I |
|
|
c.410 |
Sassanid control of Tokharistan and
Arachosia is ended
by the Hephthalites, or White Huns, who establish a kingdom of their own. |
421 - 439 |
Bahram V |
|
439 - 457 |
Yazdagird II |
|
457 - 459 |
Hormizd III |
|
459 - 484 |
Peroz |
Son of Yazdagird
II. Killed by White Huns. |
484 |
The Persian Empire
is temporarily overrun by White Huns
who maintain puppet rulers on the throne. |
484 - 488 |
Valash |
|
488 - 496 |
Kavad I |
|
496 - 498 |
Zamasp |
|
498 - 531 |
Kavad I |
Restored. |
c.520 |
Some Turk tribes
arrive from Asia and aid in the overthrow of the White Huns. |
531 - 579 |
Khusro I (Chrosroes /
Khosrau) |
Son of Kavad(h). |
c.550s |
Shortly after the end of the
Guptas
as a political power in India, the Sassanids
make some conquests there. |
565 |
The White Huns are defeated in
Kushanshah
Afghanistan by an alliance of the
Western
Kaghans and the Sassanids, and a level of Indo-Sassanid authority is
re-established in the region. The Western Kaghans set up rival states in
Bamiyan, Kabul,
and Kapisa. |
579 - 590 |
Hormizd IV |
|
591 - 628 |
Khusro II |
|
607 - 616 |
The
Sassanids invade and conquer
Byzantine Syria, Egypt and Asia Minor. |
623 - 628 |
Khusro is defeated by
Byzantine emperor Heraclius, and overthrown by
the nobles. Persia loses
Armenia in
the process. |
628 |
Kavad II |
|
628 - 629 |
Ardashir III |
|
629 - 630 |
Boran |
|
630 - 632 |
Hormizd V |
|
630 - 632 |
Khusro III |
|
632 - 651 |
Yazdagird III |
|
637 - 651 |
Mesopotamia is lost to
the Arabs in 637. The Sassanids are defeated by
Caliph Umar in 642. Persia is overrun by Islam by 651. Yazdagird is killed,
but his family flee to Turkistan, where they intermarry with the locals and
eventually produce a Yamanid dynasty in the
Afghan city of
Ghazni. They may also form an ancestral base for the later
Shansabani clan in
Afghanistan. |
651 - 945 |
Persia is conquered by the
Islamic empire
and remains under its control until the Buwayid amirs seize
power. By 821, the eastern Persian lands are governed by the
Tahrids. |
c.900 - 1000 |
A large area of eastern Persia falls under the control of the
Samanid
emirate. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Buwayid (Buyid) Amirs of Iraq
AD 945 - 1055
Although they failed to gain control of much of eastern
Persia from the
Samanid
emirate,
based in the Transoxiana region, the Buwayids took over in the west and
in Mesopotamia. They were Shiite princes of a Deylamite Persian tribal
confederation from the shores of the Caspian Sea who dominated the
Abbasid Caliphs
for a century in Mesopotamia and south-western Persia, reducing the caliph to
little more than a figurehead. They also eventually contributed
to a weakening of the Samanids.
Although they fostered a flourishing of Shiite scholarship and theology,
they never tried to suppress the Orthodox caliphs altogether, so the Abbasids continued to
exercise their minimal religious authority under the regime. Nevertheless, the
caliphs and
the Orthodox were not too happy about this and so, at least initially, they welcomed the coming
of the Orthodox Seljuqs
who overthrew the Buwayids. |
945 - 967 |
Ahmad ibn Buya |
|
967 - 978 |
Bakhtiyar |
|
978 - 983 |
Fana Khusraw |
|
983 - 987 |
Marzuban |
|
987 - 989 |
Shirzil I |
|
989 - 1012 |
Firuz |
|
995 |
Khwarazm achieves independence from Persia. |
999 - 1000 |
Thanks to pressure from the Buwayids and their allies, the Karakhanids, the
Samanids
decline in eastern Persia, and a revolt by the Afghan Ghaznavids
sees them conquered and their territory captured. |
1012 - 1021 |
Abu Shuja |
|
1021 - 1025 |
Hasan |
|
1025 - 1044 |
Shirzil II |
|
1044 - 1048 |
Marzuban |
|
1048 - 1055 |
Khusraw Firuz |
|
1055 |
The Buwayid
amirs are defeated
by and fall to the Seljuq Turks. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Seljuq Dynasty / Great Sultans
AD 1055 - 1194
Originating from Mongolia, the Seljuq Turks (or Seljuk) were part of a larger wave of Turkic tribes which erupted from
the Asian Steppes above the Volga, north of the Caspian Sea, invading Persia and Mesopotamia from 1021 onwards. |
c.990 |
Seljuk
/ Seljuq |
Dynasty Founder. |
c.1020 - 1037 |
Arslan
('Lion') |
Son. Led
Transoxianian invasion. |
1037 - c.1060 |
Chagri-Beg |
Ruled
Khorasan. Nephew of Arslan. |
1037 - 1063 |
Tughril-Beg |
Nephew of Arslan. |
1040 - 1046 |
Tughril-Beg defeats
the Afghan Ghaznavids and takes control of Afghanistan
and eastern Persia in 1040. Between 1041-1046 he establishes his rule over Isfahan. From 1044-1055 he
invades Armenia and takes Baghdad. He restores the
Abbasid Caliph and is created
sultan of Persia.
|
1059 |
The
Ghaznavid ruler re-establishes a truncated empire after the unstable two
decades preceding his rule by agreeing peace terms with the Seljuqs. |
1063 - 1072 |
Alp Arslan
('Heroic Lion') |
Son of Chagri. Won
the power struggle. |
1071 |
By 1071 a splinter group of Seljuqs has defeated the
Byzantines
to create a ruling dynasty in Anatolia which is initially subservient to the Persian Seljuqs.
Jerusalem is also
conquered. The leader of this group, Kutulmush, vies for power with
Alp Arslan.
 |
|
A stone relief of Seljuq cavalry, which swept through Persia,
northern Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia in the eleventh
century
|
|
|
1072 - 1092 |
Malik Shah I |
Son. Also sultan of
Aleppo. Died of unknown
causes. |
|
Rum becomes independent. |
1076 - 1078 |
Turkic invasions see Syria conquered fairly rapidly.
Abaaq al-Khwarazmi is a general under the command of Malik Shah I, but
Damascus quickly
becomes the capital of a newly independent state (either an emirate or
the more grand sultanate) under the general, making him the first Seljuq
to gain independence from his overlord. Following his short reign, Malik
Shah's brother, Tutush, succeeds him in Damascus, and it is he who captures
the rest of Syria from Malik Shah, becoming sultan of
Aleppo. |
1092 - 1094 |
Mahmud I |
|
1094 - 1105 |
Berk Yaruq
(Barkiyaruq) |
|
1096 |
Before the forces of the First Crusade are ready to depart, Peter the Hermit
leads, against all good advice, a motley band of civilians and soldiers into
Anatolia. They are almost wiped out in a running battle with Seljuq Turks at
Civetot. By the middle of the year, the main force is ready to leave the
Byzantine capital of Constantinople, and the
Crusades begin in earnest. |
1098 - 1099 |
The First
Crusade finds a divided
Islamic empire
governed by the Seljuq Turks, and quickly
and forcefully carves a large swathe of territory out of it, with loses
including Edessa
(on the Euphrates), and
Jerusalem. Rather than
unite, the various local rulers all end their internecine squabbles and
return home to defend their own domains. |
1105 |
Malik Shah II |
|
1105 - 1118 |
Muhammad I Tapar |
|
1118 - 1157 |
Ahmad Sanjar |
Ruled
Khorasan (1097-1157). |
1118 |
The death of the
Ghaznavid ruler, Masud, in 1115 had triggered a period of instability in
his empire to the east. In 1118 Bahram Shah wins the internecine fight with
his brothers, but only as a vassal of the Seljuqs. |
1127 |
The sultan appoints the Zangid
atabegs to govern recaptured eastern Edessa
as part of Syria. |
1146 |
Upon the assassination of the Zangid
atabeg at the hands of a slave, his sons divide the state between them, with
Nur ad-Din gaining
Aleppo and the elder Ghazi gaining
Mosul (although
not until he has won support to ward off the threat of Ahmad Sanjar's son,
Arslan Shah, being installed in Mosul).
Breaking up the state into small rival principalities means that the
Crusaders are able to recapture Edessa
for two months in the immediate aftermath of the division. |
1157 |
Upon
the death of Sanjar the Seljuq territories break up into several smaller
states. The rump of Seljuq territory is Iraq, where they remained in
power as the Khwarazm
shahs conquer the rest of Persia. |
1118 - 1131 |
Mahmud II |
Ruled Iraq. |
1131 - 1132 |
Dawud |
Ruled Iraq. |
1132 - 1134 |
Tughril II |
Ruled Iraq. |
1134 - 1152 |
Masud |
Ruled Iraq. |
1152 - 1153 |
Malik Shah III |
Ruled Iraq. |
1153 - 1160 |
Muhammad II |
Ruled Iraq. |
1157 |
The Great Sultanate
breaks up. |
1160 - 1161 |
Sulayman Shah |
Ruled Iraq. |
1161 - 1176 |
Arslan Shah |
Ruled Iraq. |
1176 - 1194 |
Tughril III |
Ruled Iraq. Last
Seljuq sultan. Died on the battlefield. |
1194 - 1219 |
Persia is conquered by
the
Khwarazm
shahs. |
1218 |
Tiring of the Chinese campaign,
Mongol
Great Khan Chingiz sends his general, Chepe, westwards to overthrow the empire of the
Qara-Khitaï
and annexe its territory. This defeat also opens the way towards Mongol
interaction with
Khwarazm
and Persia. |
1219 - 1256 |
Following two attacks by the
Mongols
in 1219 and 1221 which secures eastern Persia for them, the
Khwarazm
shahs
are finally conquered in 1231 and Persia is controlled directly by the
Golden Horde until 1256. Then the descendents of Chingiz Khan divide up the
Mongol empire. The Il-Khans control
Persia. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Il-Khan Dynasty
AD 1221 - 1336
In Transoxiana in 1219-1221, the
Mongols attacked the
Khwarazm
emirate which controlled Persia, and finally overran it in 1221. When the
descendents of Chingiz Khan divided up the Mongol empire, the Il-Khans
(as they became known) inherited Persia and eastern Anatolia, ruling from Baghdad. While they did
so, the Ottoman Turks focused
on conquering and securing western Anatolia and
Byzantine
Greece. The rulers were known by their traditional Mongol title of khan.
The Il-Khanate was officially founded by Hulagu in 1260, following the death
of Great Khan Mongke. It faired poorly at the start, struggling with
relatively mundane issues such as the economy but also with an embarrassing
defeat by the Mameluke Bahris of
Egypt. However, under Ghaza Il-Khan, the Il-Khanate regained its
military superiority and began an economical recovery that continued until
the reign of Abu Said. At its height, the khanate encompassed territory
which included modern eastern
Turkey,
Iran,
Iraq, the Transcaucus,
and western Turkistan (an ill-defined region which included areas of
Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan), which formed the border with
Mughulistan. |
|
1221 - 1256 |
Tolui |
Son of Chingiz Khan. Governed
Khwarazm
& Persia in his name. |
1227 |
The
Mongol empire is effectively divided into four sections, or 'ulus' (inheritances), each
governed by one of the sons of Chingiz. They remain politically united under
the great khan, but their existence establishes the basis of future
independent Mongol kingdoms. Ogedei is the selected successor to Chingiz,
and is officially proclaimed as such in 1229. While he and his successors
still control the entire empire, they largely concentrate their attention on
Mongolia and
China. The rest
is divided into three portions to be governed by the other sons of Chingiz.
The north-western section is handed to Jochi and it is Jochi's son, Batu
Khan, who inherits the westernmost section of this ulu as the
Blue
Horde, with Orda leading the eastern section as the
White
Horde (collectively known as the Golden Horde). Chagatai Khan (the second son) inherits
Mughulistan, while Tolui governs Persia. |
1253 - 1256 |
Tolui's son, Hulegu, begins a campaign which sees him enter the
Islamic lands of Mesopotamia on behalf of Great Khan Mongke. Ismailis
(assassins) have been threatening the
Mongol governors of the western provinces, so Mongke has determined that
the Abbasid
caliphs must be brought to heel. Hulegu quickly establishes dominion over
Mosul,
and Badr ad Din Lu'lu is allowed to retain governance of the city as he aids the
Mongols in other campaigns in
Syria. |
1256 - 1265 |
Hulegu |
Son. First
Il-Khan ruler from 1259. |
1258 |
Despite being nominally dominated by the
Mongols
under the Great Khan Mongke, the actions in Syria and against
Egypt of Sultan an Nasir II Yusuf of
Damascus force a Mongol invasion of Mesopotamia. Mongke decides to
conquer the region as far as the Nile and sends a vast force under Hulegu against Baghdad in 1258. The
Abbasid
caliph and his family are massacred when Yusuf fails to produce an army to defend
him. |
1260 |
The
Mongol army
under Hulegu marches on
Aleppo
and it quickly falls (within a week). This time, most of the inhabitants are
killed or sold into slavery and the Great Mosque and the defensive Citadel
are razed. When the army arrives at
Damascus
the city surrenders immediately as Nasir II Yusuf has already fled to Gaza.
Samaria is captured, with the garrison of Nablus being put to the sword, and
Gaza is taken. Yusuf is captured and killed while a prisoner.
Hulegu withdraws from Syria once he learns of Great Khan Mongke's death,
leaving behind a minor force. Baybars of
Egypt sends a Mameluke army against this and defeats it at
the Battle of Ain Jalut. Damascus is freed five days later and within a
month most of Syria is in Baybars' hands. With the political climate in the
Mongol empire becoming unstable, Hulegu settles in Persia as the
first independent ruler of the Il-Khanate.
At Karakorum, there is disagreement about the choice of successor as great
khan. The two claimants, Kublai Khan and Ariq-Boke, engage in civil war which
lasts four years. During this period, Hulegu's slaughter of so many thousands
of Muslims at Baghdad has enraged Berke Khan of the
Blue Horde.
War erupts between the two, with the side-effect that Berke is forced to cancel a
planned invasion of Europe. |
1262 |
Rukn ad Din Ismail of
Mosul sides with the
Mamelukes
against the
Mongols, precipitating Mongol retribution.
Mosul is destroyed by them and its surrounding territory is integrated into
the Il-Khan dominions, ending Zangid
rule of the region. |
1265 - 1282 |
Abaqa
/ Abaga / Abagha Khan |
Son. |
1281 |
The sultan of
Egypt is faced with an invasion of Syria through Homs under the leadership of Abaqa
Khan. The threat is overcome after the bloody Second Battle of Homs produces
no clear outcome and Abaqa withdraws. |
1282 - 1284 |
Ahmad Teguder
/ Tekuder |
Brother. |
1284 - 1291 |
Arghun |
Son of Abaqa. |
1291 - 1295 |
Gaykhatu |
Brother. |
1294 |
With the death of Kublai Khan, the
Yuan dynasty
survives under his successor, but the
Mongol empire effectively ceases to
exist. There are no further Khakhans (great khans), and command of the
empire's territory is now permanently divided into four distinct and fully
independent kingdoms: the Golden Horde (made up of the
Blue Horde
and White Horde), the Il-Khanate,
Mughulistan, and
Yuan China. |
1295 |
Baydu
/ Baidu |
Cousin. |
1295 - 1304 |
Mahmud Ghazan
/ Casanus / Ghaza Il-Khan |
Son of Arghun. Led a golden age. |
1295 |
Following his accession, Mahmud Ghazan accepts Islam, marking a departure in the politics
of Mongol
Persia. From this point onwards, despite Ghazan maintaining strong links with the
Yuan,
the Il-Khanate becomes increasingly Islamicised, turning away from its Mongol origins. |
1299 - 1303 |
Mahmud Ghazan marches on Syria, taking
Aleppo. He is joined there by his
vassal, King Hethoum II of the kingdom of
Lesser
Armenia. Together they defeat the Mameluke Bahrids of
Egypt and Damascus
at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar on 23 or 24 December. The Bahrids are
pushed back into Egypt and Damascus quickly falls to the invaders. The
Il-Khans then withdraw, perhaps due to a lack of supplies. The attack is
renewed in 1301, but it degenerates into a scattering of inconclusive
battles and politicking. In the end, Ghazan's forces are defeated by the
Mamelukes of Egypt at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in April 1303 and
withdraw, never to return. |
1301 |
Thanks to the support of Kaidu of
Mughulistan
for the opposing faction in the
White Horde
dynastic conflict, Buyan has won support both from
Great Khan Temur
and Mahmud Ghazan. Temur now organises a response against Kaidu, ending with the latter's
defeat at the bloody Battle of the River Zawkhan. Kaidu dies shortly afterwards. |
1304 - 1306 |
The
Chaghatayids
under Du'a and Chapar, son of Kaidu, the
Golden Horde
under Toqta, and the Il-Khanate under
Mahmud Ghazan negotiate peace with Temur Khan so that trade and diplomatic
relations are not harmed by constant bickering and fighting. The
Yuan
emperor is also accepted as the nominal overlord of the three junior
Mongol
states. As is customary (but not always observed in recent times), Temur
designates Öljeytu as the new Il-Khan. Soon afterwards, the former allies
Du'a and Chapar fall out over the territory they control within Mughulistan,
so Temur backs the rightful ruler, Du'a, and sends a large army into the
region in 1306, forcing Chapar to surrender. |
1304 - 1316 |
Muhammad Khudabanda Öljeytu |
Brother. |
1316 - 1335 |
Abu Said Ala ad Dunya wa dDin |
Son. No heir. |
1335 - 1336 |
Arpa Keun |
Married Sati Beg, sister of Abu Said. Captured and killed. |
1335 - 1353 |
Almost immediately in 1335, Arpa Keun faces an invasion by the
Golden Horde
under Ozbeg Khan. This is defeated, but the following year he is attacked by
Oirat 'Ali Padsah, the governor of Baghdad. Padsah defeats him on 10 April
1336 near Maraga and soon afterwards he is captured and killed. Oirat 'Ali
Padsah immediately places an
Il-Khan Puppet on the throne which he rules from Baghdad. This triggers a
period in which several rival Mongol successor states, such as the Chobanids and
the Jalayirids,
jostle for control. The latter seize Baghdad and rule south-western Persia
from there. The entire region undergoes a period of anarchy and civil war.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Il-Khan Post-Dynasty Puppets
AD 1336 - 1357
The Il-Khan (or Ilkhan) dynasty was of
Mongol origin. They had been based in
Uruk in Mesopotamia
since 1231, apparently giving the region a new name based on their capital - Iraq.
In 1336 Oirat 'Ali Padsah, the governor of Baghdad, attacked and killed Arpa Keun,
the last Il-Khan. Padsah immediately placed a puppet on the throne which he ruled
from Iraq, but the khanate broke up almost immediately, with a period of anarchy and
misrule hitting Persia as several Mongol successor states jostled for control, the
main ones being the
Jalayirids in
south-western Persia and the Chobanids in north-western Persia. The Il-Khans
found themselves contained in Iraq, under the domination of their
successors. Few of them remained long on the throne and their claim appears
to have died out after the little-known Ghazan II in 1357. |
1336 |
Musa |
Puppet of 'Ali Padsah of Baghdad. |
|
1336 |
Musa is the great-great grandson of Hulegu, the second
Il-Khan,
but his right to the throne is challenged by the
Jalayirid, Hasan Buzurg.
Padsah is killed and Musa flees after being defeated at the Battle of Qara
Darra on 24 July 1336. Hasan Buzurg
maintains his own puppet, the child Muhammad Khan, on the Il-Kahn throne
after that. |
1337 - 1338 |
Muhammad Khan |
Jalayirid
puppet (south-western Persia). A child. |
|
1338 - 1339 |
The Chobanid, Hasan Kucek, fights Hasan Buzurg and
Muhammad at the Battle of Alataq on 16 July 1338, defeating them. Buzurg
flees but Muhammad is captured and executed. Sati Beg, the widow of the
final ruling
Il-Khan, Arpa Keun,
had initially been a supporter of Hasan Buzurg, but when he is defeated by
Kucek, Sati Beg's own step-grandson, she defects. She is raised to the
throne as a figurehead, although her authority does not extend beyond the
Chobanid borders. Kucek grows suspicious of her by 1339 so he deposes her
and marries her to his next candidate for the throne, Suleiman Khan. |
1338 - 1339 |
Sati
Beg |
Chobanid figurehead (north-western Persia). Died after
1345. |
1339 |
Togha
Temur |
Jalayirid
puppet. |
1339 - 1343 |
Suleiman Khan / Sulayman |
Chobanid puppet. m Sati Beg. Claimed title until 1345. |
|
1339 - 1340 |
Following the withdrawal of
Jalayirid support from
Togha Temur, the next candidate put forward by Hasan Buzurg is Jahan Temur.
He and Buzurg meet the Chobanids in battle on the Jaghatu in 1340 and are
defeated. Buzurg gives up on the idea of puppet claimants to the throne and
now establishes his own Jalayirid Sultanate in Baghdad. |
1339 - 1340 |
Jahan
Temur |
Jalayirid
puppet. |
|
1341 - 1343 |
Suleiman Khan is also recognised by the Sarbadars in
western Khorasan as they attempt to begin an alliance with the Chobanids.
However, when Hasan Kucek is murdered in 1343, Suleiman appeals to Hasan
Buzurg to intervene in the ensuing Chobanid succession struggle, but both
claimants, together with Suleiman, are forced to flee to Diyarbakr, where
Suleiman maintains his claim until 1345. The Chobanids renew their control
of the Il-Khans. |
1343 - 1356 |
Anushirwan |
Chobanid puppet. |
1356 - 1357 |
Ghazan II |
Known only through numismatic evidence. |
|
1357 - 1401 |
Southern and eastern Persia and Iraq are controlled
directly by the Jalayirids
until 1401, when Iraq becomes a province of the
Timurids after their
founder, Timur, conquers Baghdad - the last of a series of conquests which
gives him all of Persia. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Timurid Dynasty
AD 1384 - 1500
Persia was the location for a long period of unrest
between about 1336-1387, while the surviving
Il-Khans were used as puppets
by the Chobanids and the
Jalayirids for the right
to claim control of all of Persia.
Chaghatayid
khans attempted to quell the tribes of
Transoxiana but were eventually unsuccessful, despite two invasions of
the region in the 1360s. The death of the khan ended Chaghatayid hopes of
restoring control of western Mughulistan which included Transoxiana.
Instead, two tribal leaders, Amir Husayn and Tîmûr-i Lang contested for
control of Transoxiana. The latter was ultimately successful, taking
Transoxiana and Khorasan in the name of the Chaghatyids, but effectively
forming his own Timurid khanate. Samarkand fell in 1366, Balikh in 1369,
and Timur was recognised as the region's ruler in 1370. He placed a
figurehead
Mongol on the throne to legitimise his rule there while he governed from
behind the throne as amir and his increasingly Persian and Turkic-influenced
Timurid descendants succeeded him.
Timur extended his new-found empire by taking southern and western Persia
from 1380. He entered Persia proper in 1382 and an ambitious attack on the
Chobanids and the disputed Caucuses region by the
Golden Horde allowed Timur to fill the power vacuum and found the
Timurid dynasty. At its height, Timurid Persia governed all the territory
between the eastern edge of the Black Sea, down through Mesopotamia and Iran,
and eastwards to the Aral Sea, Samarkand, and halfway into modern
Pakistan.
However, so many people were killed by his wars (estimated by some to have
reached seventeen million), that the seat of Persian culture and influence
moved further east, to Samarkand.
|
1370 - 1405 |
Tîmûr-i Lang / Tamerlane |
Mongol
conqueror from Mughulistan. |
1386 - 1394 |
Timur conquers Greater Armenia
and massacres a large part of the population. |
1393 |
Timur removes the Muzaffarids from Shiraz in
1393. |
1395 |
The
Golden Horde is beaten, allowing Timur to claim complete control of
the Caucuses, which probably includes the
Alans to
its north. The horde's capital at Sarai is sacked by Timur while the horde
itself is forced to accept vassalage and a puppet ruler. |
1398 |
Timur subjugates Multan (in modern
Pakistan) through the efforts of Pir
Muhammad, his grandson through his son, Jahangir. Subsequently, Dipalpur (in
India)
falls, causing destruction in
Delhi. |
|
1400 - 1402 |
Jalayirid Iraq becomes a
province of Timur's Persia when he conquers Baghdad, defeats the
Black Sheep emirate in
eastern Anatolia, and captures
Damascus. The following
year Timur also defeats, captures and imprisons the
Ottoman ruler Bayezid
I at the Battle of Ankara, making Anatolia another province. Now fully
secure in Persia, the figurehead
Chaghatayid
khans become completely unimportant. |
1405 - 1407 |
Pîr Muhammad |
Grandson. In Kandahar (modern
Afghanistan). |
|
1405 |
On his deathbed, Timur names Pir Muhammad as his successor. None of his
own sons are suitable for the position. Miran Shah suffers from mental
problems, and Shah Rukh seems to be more interested in his religion, while
the other two, Jahangir and Umar Shaikh have already died.
After Timur's death, none of the Timurid royalty accept his decision and
Pir Muhammad is unable to enforce his rule in Transoxiana, splitting the
empire in two. The western portion is ruled by Shah Rukh from Herat in
Khorasan, and his
wife, Goharshad moves the capital there from Samarkand. The eastern portion of
Transoxiana is ruled from Samarkand (in modern
Uzbekistan). The confusion also acts as a prompt for the
Ottomans to re-invade
Greater Armenia
and annexe it to their own empire while the subservient
Golden Horde fractures into separate states. |
|
1407 |
Pir Muhammad is murdered by his vizier and from
Khorasan, in about
1409, Shah Rukh is able to secure the role of overall ruler of the empire
when he recaptures
Transoxiana. |
1409 - 1447 |
Shah Rukh
/ Shahrukh |
In
Khorasan (1405-1409).
In
Transoxiana (1409-1447). |
|
1410 |
The Black Sheep emirate
captures Baghdad, reducing the Timurids to Persia proper in the west, and
Khorasan and
Transoxiana
in the east. |
|
1447 |
Upon Shah Rukh's death, his wife, Goharshad, becomes the de facto ruler of
the Timurid empire. She elevates her favourite grandson to the throne and is
the power behind that throne. |
1447 - 1449 |
Ulugh Beg
/ Mīrza Mohammad Taregh |
Son.
Viceroy in
Transoxiana
(1409-1447). |
1447 - 1457 |
|
Goharshad |
Mother. In Persia
and
Khorasan.
Executed in
Transoxiana. |
|
1448 - 1449 |
Ulugh Beg, unpopular and unsuccessful in battle, is beheaded by his own son
after he massacres the people of
Herat, which is
then conquered by another Timurid rival, Babur Ibn-Baysunkur. Sultan
Muhammad, a grandson of Shah Rukh, claims control of Central Persia, while Ulugh Beg's
son, Abd al Latîf, is left with
Transoxiana. |
1449 - 1451 |
Sultan Muhammad |
Grandson of Shah
Rukh. In Central Persia. |
1450 - 1451 |
Sultan Muhammad invades
Khorasan,
defeating Babur at the Battle of Mashad in March 1450. After initially
ceding territory, Babur recovers in 1451 and turns the tables, taking his
rival prisoner and executing him. Central Persia becomes his, reuniting two
portions of the empire. |
1451 - 1453 |
Jahan Shah ends the loyalty of the
Black Sheep emirate with
the fracturing
Timurids. He besieges Qum and Sava with overwhelming forces which the main
Timurid ruler, Babur
Ibn-Baysunkur of
Khorasan, is unable to face. Most of Persia is taken by 1452, including
Ray, with the last section, Abarquh, falling in 1453. Khorasan and the
Timurids are never able to recapture Persia. |
|
1461 - 1469 |
Abu Sa'id of
Transoxiana completes his conquest of much of
Khorasan and
eastern Iran, agreeing with the
Black Sheep emir, Jahan
Shah, to divide Iran (Central Persia) between the two of them. The Timurids
lose Iran permanently following Abu Sa'id's death in 1469. |
|
|
|
1501 - 1507 |
The
Shaibanid Turks conquer
Transoxiana
and Khorasan. The
former region includes a small Timurid
principality at Farghana which is ruled by Babur, the Timurid son of Umar Sheikh Mirza. The
Uzbek
conquest forces him into exile where he captures
Kabul in 1504. |
1501 |
The
Safavid shah
conquers Persia, and establishes a nationalist Persian monarchy on the
basis of Shiite (Twelver) ideology. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Safavid Shahs of Iran
AD 1501 - 1736
The Safavids were a Turkic-speaking Iranian dynasty which was descended
from Sheykh Safi ad Din (1253-1334) of Ardabil, head of the Sufi order
of Safaviyeh (Safawiyah), but in about 1399 they exchanged their Sunnite
affiliation for Shi'ism. The Safavids established Shi'ite Islam as the state
religion of Persia, which became a major factor in the emergence of a unified
national consciousness among the various ethnic and linguistic elements of
the country.
The founder of the dynasty, Ismail I, as head of the Sufis of Ardabil, won
enough support from the local Turkmen and other disaffected heterodox tribes
to enable him to capture Tabriz from the
White Sheep emirate. In July
1501, Ismail was enthroned as shah of Azerbaijan. By May the following year he
was shah of Iran.
(Additional information by Anar R Guliyev, and from External Link:
Iran Chamber Society.)
|
1501 - 1524 |
Esmail / Ismail I |
Grandson of Uzun Hasan of the
White Sheep Emirate. |
1501 - 1511 |
Esmail
spends a decade subjugating much of greater Iran. He also annexes Baghdad and Mosul,
and aids Babur of Kabul
in temporarily recapturing
Samarkand in 1511. |
1520 |
A Persian occupying force
in Georgia is wiped out by the Georgian
King of Kartli. |
1520 - 1521 |
Following the death of
Ottoman
Sultan Selim I and the accession of his successor, Suleyman I the Magnificent,
Governor Djanbirdi al-Ghazali of
Damascus rebels. He
seeks to restore Mameluke
suzerainty over Syria and goes so far as to declare himself sultan. Hama,
Hims, and Tripoli join his rebellion, but both Khair Bey of
Egypt and Shah Esmail himself refuse to support him. Eventually, the
Ottomans destroy both him and his army. |
1524 - 1576 |
Tahmasp I
/ Tahmash |
Son. Weak ruler. |
1543 - 1545 |
The exile
Moghul
emperor of northern
India,
Humayun, seeks refuge with the sympathetic Tahmasp, until he is able to
strike out and recapture his empire, firstly by retaking
Kabul. |
1576 - 1578 |
Esmail II |
|
1576 |
The Safavid
shahs begin to encroach on Afghan territory, putting pressure on
Kabul to defend itself. |
1578 - 1587 |
Mohammad Khodabanda |
|
1587 - 1629 |
Abbas I, the Great |
Established Safavids as a major power. |
1615 |
Abbas
deposes the king of
Kartli
for attempting to unify Georgia. |
|
1623 |
Taking advantage of a revolt by Shah Jahan, son of the
Moghul
emperor, the Persians capture
Kandahar. |
1629 - 1642 |
Safi I |
|
1642 - 1666 |
Abbas II |
|
|
1648 |
Ten years after it is temporarily retaken by the
Moghul
emperor Shah Jahan,
Ghazni is again
captured by the Persians, and this time they hold onto it. |
1666 - 1694 |
Safi II / Solayman I |
|
1694 - 1722 |
Hosayn I |
|
1709 |
Governor of the Kandahar province of Afghanistan since 1704, The Georgian
King Giorgi XI of
Kartli is killed by rebel
Ghilzai Afghan tribes under Mirwais Khan Hotak, when the latter creates
a kingdom of his own. As governor, Giorgi leads a Persian force against the Ghilzais but is defeated and killed. |
1722 - 1729 |
Shah
Hosayn surrenders the Persian capital of Isfahan to Afghan rebels after a
seven month siege. The
Hotaki Afghans
from Kandahar occupy much of Iran, including the capital at Estfahan.
However, they are seen as usurpers by much of the population, and hold
effective power only in the east. In 1725, they order the massacre of all
captured Safavid princes except for Hosayn himself, although Hosayn manages
to have the lives of his two sons spared as well. |
1729 - 1730 |
The
general, Nadir Kuli, liberates the country from the
Afghans
at the Battle of Damghan, and restores the Safavids. He himself occupies the
position of regent over the remaining Safavid shahs. |
1722 - 1732 |
Tahmasp II
/ Tahmash |
Killed 1740. |
1732 - 1736 |
Abbas III |
Killed 1740. |
1736 |
Abbas
leaves no heir to the throne so Nadir Kuli claims the title and founds the
short-lived Afsharid dynasty. Two minor Safavid
claimants almost outlast the Afsharids by ruling small pockets of eastern territory. |
1750 |
Solayman II |
In Mashhad. |
1750 - 1765 |
Esmail III |
In Esfahan. Died 1773. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Afsharid Shahs of Iran
AD 1736 - 1750
Nadir shah's assassination led to the weakening of the Afsharids amid
speculation about his death. The
Afghans
claimed he was killed by Iranian Shias because he was Sunni, and was from
Khorasan (northern and western Afghanistan), and had close ties with the
Afghan tribes. In return, Iranians were of the mind that he was killed
because the Afghans had a plan to gain independence, and they pointed the
finger at Ahmad Shah Abdali, who was very close to Nadir Shah.
(Additional information by Abhijit Rajadhyaksha, from Travels Through
Arabia and Other Countries in the East, Carsten Niebuhr, 1792, and from
First Light, Al Khalifa.) |
1736 - 1747 |
Nadir Shah |
Former general,
and regent (1732-1736). Assassinated. |
1738 - 1739 |
Nadir Shah
marches his army through Afghanistan, destroying the ruling
Hotaki
dynasty. The following year he loots Delhi, heart of the
Moghul
empire, humiliating the emperor, looting his treasures and causing the empire
to fragment into a loose association of states. |
1747 |
Nadir
Shah is assassinated. In the east, his former general, Ahmad Shah Abdali, is
appointed king by loya Jirga and establishes the
Durrani
empire in Afghanistan. Iran also appears to lose direct control of
Bahrain from this point, with
Nasr Al-Madhkur, governor of Bushire (Bushehr) and Bahrain exercising
semi-independent control of the island. |
1747 |
Adel Shah |
|
1748 |
Ebrahim |
|
1748 - 1750 |
Shah Rukh |
In Khorasan 1750
& 1755-1796. |
1748 - 1750 |
The increasing instability in the Persian lands allows several groups of tribal
Arabs attempt the occupation of Bushire (Bushehr) in the south, although they
fail. To strengthen their hand they later side with
Dutch-German
trading companies and attack the city again. It takes a year for a
two-thousand-man mounted army to get rid of all of the invaders. |
1750 - 1803 |
As the
Zands take political control of Persia, the
Afsharids become increasingly marginalised and end their rule in eastern Khorasan,
which is now disputed territory with the Afghan
Durranis. |
1750 |
Mir Sayyed Mohammed |
In Khorasan. |
1750 - 1773 |
Esmail / Ismail III |
In Khorasan. |
|
|
|
1795 |
Qajar shah,
Agha Mohammad, invades the
Durrani
Afghan province of Khorasan and annexes it to Iran. |
1796 - 1803 |
Nader Mirza |
In Mashhad. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Zand Shahs of Iran
AD 1750 - 1794
(Additional information from Travels Through Arabia
and Other Countries in the East, Carsten Niebuhr, 1792.) |
1751 - 1779 |
Karim Khan |
Regent for Esmail III (1751-1769). |
1753 |
When the news of the attack on Bushire (Bushehr) of 1748-1750 reaches the
governing Al-Madhkur clan, they and their allies leave the city for good
and migrate to the island of
Bahrain where they set up an
all-but-independent governorship. Successive invasions of the island have
left it vulnerable and chaotic. The
German geographer, Carsten Niebuhr, states that the Sunni Persians of
Bushire under the Al-Madhkurs are one of southern Persia's three major
governing forces in the 1760s, so clearly not all of them migrate.
Niebuhr's statements are sometimes used to assert that the governorship of
Bushire and Bahrain is really an independent sovereign state, but this seems
unlikely as the claim is not repeated elsewhere. Instead, as is usual at
times of instability, the governors probably exercise a good deal of
independent authority without actually being independent in name. |
1779 |
Abul
Fath |
In Shiraz (City
of Roses, in Persia). |
1779 |
Mohammad Ali |
In Shiraz. |
1779 - 1781 |
Mohammad Sadiq |
In Shiraz. |
1781 - 1785 |
Ali Morad |
In Esfahan. |
1782 - 1783 |
War breaks out between the Bani Utbah federation on Zubarah and the Al-Madhkurs.
The battle of Zubarah in 1782 between the Bani Utbah and the army of Nasr
Al-Madhkur must result in the defeat of the latter, as Governor Nasr Al-Madhkur
loses the islands of
Bahrain to the Bani Utbah
tribe the following year. |
1785 - 1789 |
Jafar |
In Esfahan, then Shiraz. |
1789 - 1794 |
Lutf Ali |
In Shiraz. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Qajar Shahs of Iran
AD 1794 - 1925 |
1779 - 1797 |
Agha Mohammad |
Southern Persia 1794. |
1795 |
Agha Mohammad invades the
Durrani
Afghan province of Khorasan and annexes it to Iran. |
1797 - 1834 |
Fath Ali |
|
1805 |
A Persian attack on Herat in
Afghanistan
fails, while internal fighting continues within the state. |
1826 - 1828 |
The Russo-Persian War is the last major military conflict between the
Russian
and Persian empires, and the first time the two have fought each other
since the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813. Shah Fath Ali is still desperate for
increased foreign subsidies, and is advised by
British
agents to reconquer the territories that have been lost to Russia. On 28
July 1826, a 35,000-strong Persian army is led across the border by Abbas
Mirza, invading the Khanates of Talysh and Karabakh. The khans surrender
their main cities to the Persians. However, Russian military power proves
too much for them and Eastern
Armenia
is taken before Persia agrees peace terms, bolstered in part by the start of
the Russo-Turkish
War. |
1832 - 1833 |
The Qajar shahs move into the province of Khorasan, and
then threaten Herat. The
Afghans
are forced to defend the city but manage to repel the invaders. |
1834 - 1848 |
Mohammad |
|
1848 - 1896 |
Naser od Din |
|
1867 - 1868 |
Relations between
Qatar and
Bahrain have gradually deteriorated
during the course of the decade. A series of minor disputes escalates when
Bahrain arrests a Qatari Bedouin on the Qatari mainland. The Qataris waste
no time in expelling the Bahraini forces from the mainland, and in response
Abu Dhabi and Bahrain join in attacking Qatar. The Qatari-Bahraini War is a
brief affair but it leaves about a thousand dead and many of Bahrain's deployed
vessels destroyed.
Britain
responds by appointing Hakim Muhammad's brother, Ali, to replace him as
ruler of Bahrain, and any remaining Iranian influence or control over
Bahrain is severed. |
1896 - 1907 |
Muzaffar od Din |
|
1905 - 1908 |
The Persian revolution
sweeps the country. |
1907 - 1909 |
Mohammad Ali |
|
1909 - 1925 |
Ahmad |
|
1913 |
Britain
and the Ottoman government
sign a treaty recognising the independence of
Bahrain. The country
remains under British protection and is rapidly developing itself into a
thoroughly modern state. It is quickly becoming a business centre for the
gulf and
India.
Iran claims sovereignty over Bahrain through its previous links to the
Islamic empire. |
1925 |
A coup d'etat replaces the Qajars with the
Pahlevis. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pahlevi Shahs of Iran
AD 1925 - 1979
The previous ruling dynasty of Persia, the Qajars,
were seemingly unable to prevent encroachment by the
British
and the
Soviet Russians. Much of Iran apart from the capital was outside their
control. The country's military elite were not impressed and overthrew them
in a coup. They were exiled, eventually ending up in
France.
The nation's parliament, the majilis, met on 12 December 1925 where
it voted to formally remove the Qajars and replace them with the Pahlevis,
in the form of Reza Khan. Born in 1878, he was the son of a major in the 7th
Savadkuh Regiment. and had himself risen to the position of minister of war
and commander of the Iranian army following his part in the coup of 1921.
Persia had been one of the world's great non-maritime empires, especially in
the ancient world. The country had long maintained a distinct cultural
identity within the Islamic world by retaining its own language and adhering
to the Shia interpretation of Islam.
Reza Khan ruled the country with a strong hand, introducing various reforms
including a leaning towards a Westernised way of life, complete with
everything from emancipated women to modern department stores. Additionally,
in 1935 ancient Persia became
officially known as Iran whereas previously this had been a regional title.
Reza's successor qualified this in 1959 by announcing that both Iran and
Persia were acceptable names.
(Additional information from External Link:
BBC Country Profiles.) |
1925 - 1941 |
Reza
(Rida) Pahlevi |
Persia is
officially renamed Iran. Deposed. |
1941 |
The shah's pro-Axis allegiance during the Second World War makes Iran a
target. The shah encourages Nazi
German economic involvement in the country while attempting to play off
Britain
and
Russia against each other. The policy falls apart when Britain and
Russia become allies in the war and occupy Iran to use it as a conduit for
supplies. The shah is deposed in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. |
1941 - 1979 |
Mohammed Reza |
Son. Celebrated 2500th
anniversary of Persian empire. Died 1980. |
1950 - 1951 |
Ali Razmara becomes prime minister and is assassinated less than nine months
later. He is succeeded by the nationalist, Mohammad Mossadeq. In April of
the following year parliament votes to nationalise the oil industry, which
is dominated by the
British-owned
Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Britain imposes an embargo and a blockade,
halting oil exports and hitting the economy. A power struggle ensues between
the shah and Mossadeq and the shah flees the country in August 1953. This
sets a precedent. |
1953 |
Mossadeq is overthrown in an August coup that has been engineered by the
British
and
American
intelligence services. General Fazlollah Zahedi is proclaimed prime minister
and the shah is able to return. |
1963 |
In
January the shah announces the 'White Revolution', a programme of social and
political reform and privatisation. He is vociferously opposed by the leading
cleric, Ayatollah Khomeini, but following several brushes with authority,
Khomeini is exiled to Iraq
the following year.
 |
|
Ayatollah Khomeini addresses the crowd in Tehran in 1979, soon
after his rise to power in Rian, having seen off the modernising
shah of Iran
|
|
|
1970 |
In May, Iran renounces its claim to sovereignty over
Bahrain after a United Nations
report shows that Bahrainis want to remain independent. |
1978 - 1979 |
The shah's modernisation policies have alienated the conservative clergy.
Coupled with this problem is his authoritarian rule, which leads to riots,
strikes, and mass demonstrations. Martial law is imposed on the country but
in January 1979 the shah is forced to lead his family into exile. Ayatollah
Khomeini steers the course of the Iranian Revolution from his base, which is
now in France
for a short period before he returns to Iran in February 1979. Shah Mohammed
Reza is the last emperor in Europe, the Mediterranean, or the Middle East.
An Islamic republic is declared in place of the shahdom and Khomeini rules
over an oppressive hard-line regime. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Modern Iran
AD 1979 - Present Day
The modern Islamic republic of Iran is a good deal smaller than historic
Persia, although those historic
borders have fluctuated wildly over the centuries. The republic was created
in 1979, after ending the Iranian shahdom which had existed for almost five
hundred years. With its capital at Tehran in the northern central region,
close to the Caspian Sea, the country is neighboured by
Turkmenistan to the north-east,
Afghanistan and
Pakistan
to the east, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia and
Kuwait across the Persian Gulf
to the south, Iraq
and Turkey to the
west, and Armenia
and Azerbaijan to the north-west.
While
the modern state itself is known as Iran, the geographical region in which
it sits can still be labelled Persia, as can Iranian cultural and historic
matters. The ancient Greeks used 'Persia' to describe the land of the
Persians (or Parsu), a grouping of
Indo-Europeans
who had arrived in the region after the twelfth century BC. The official
modern use of 'Iran' began in 1935, at the request of Reza Shah of the
Pahlevis, although in 1959 it was
accepted that both this and 'Persia' were valid. The name originates in the
proto-Iranian 'Aryānā', meaning 'land of the Aryans'. The country also
incorporates the region of Elam,
one of the world's earliest emergent civilisations.
Following the revolution, the 'Grand Ayatollah' became the supreme leader in
the new 'Islamic Republic of Iran', with the position being embodied by the
leader of the revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini. Beneath him was a twelve-man
'Guardian Council' which was created with the power to veto any laws passed
by the Majlis (the parliament), and the power to reject any candidate who
presented himself for election (only Islamists qualified). In the first years
of the twenty-first century, the council persistently sided with extremists
and hard-liners, using its veto powers very aggressively to block any
moderates. By the early 2010s the moderates gained a stronger foothold, and
a marginally more inclusive administration was inaugurated.
(Additional information from External Link:
BBC Country Profiles.) |
1979 - 1989 |
Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini / Khumayni |
Leader of the
Iranian Revolution. |
1980 - 1988 |
Saddam Hussein of Iraq
claims that the new revolutionary government of Iran is attempting to topple him
from power. He declares war and the border between the two countries is a
permanent battlefield for nearly a decade. Iraq is supported strategically
and financially by Kuwait.
Hussein occasionally employs chemical weapons on his enemy, but the two
sides are evenly matched and the war ends in stalemate.
 |
|
In places the Iran-Iraq War was a regional recreation of the
First World War, with hopeless charges against enemy lines of
trenches, and the death toll was suitably immense
|
|
|
1989 - Present |
Ali
Khamenei |
Previously
president of Iran. |
2009 |
Disputed election results on 12 June, which see the return to office of the
hard line president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, brings tens of thousands of
ordinary Iranians onto the streets in protest. Khamenei allows the Guardian
Council to deal with the election dispute, but instead of fully backing the
result, the council announces that it might recount ten per cent of the
votes amid admissions that there might be some basis for the claims of
voting irregularities.
Mass protests continue, despite bans being issued, and a public speech by
Khamenei on 19 June in which he fully backs the results simply inflames his
growing opposition. When a young female student named Neda Agha-Soltani is
shot dead by a sniper while taking part in a peaceful demonstration, the
opposition have a martyr behind which to rally, and the future of the regime
begins to look shaky. It survives the protests however, although in a weakened
state. |
2013 |
Hopes for more fruitful engagement with the rest of the
world rise with the election of self-proclaimed moderate Hassan Rouhani to
the presidency. A deal to restrict the country's highly controversial
uranium enrichment programme in November sees the lifting of some
international sanctions, but the domestic political divide remains deep.
Young people are continually arrested for allegedly flouting strict Islamic
rules and regulations, including dancing in public and even women attending
basketball matches. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|