European Kingdoms

The Holy Roman Empire / East Francia
AD 800 - 1806

What became the first German empire was created by the Western Frankish domination of most of Europe under Charlemagne. Division followed in the ninth century, as the empire split into France, Germany and Italy, but the eastern region was known as East Francia even as late as 1493, when Maximilian I made the formal claim that it was now Germania.

Frankish Roman Emperors
AD 800 - 888

800 - 814

Charles the Great / Charlemagne

King of the Western Franks.

814 - 840

Louis the Pious

King of the Western Franks. The empire splits up.

840

Louis wills the Frankish empire to his sons, but tries to ensure that the eldest gains the biggest share, in order to avoid the fragmentation of territory that so weakened the Merovingians. Lothar receives Middle Francia (the Rhine corridor including the kingdom of Burgundy, and Italy); Charles the Bald receives Western Francia (France and the duchy of Burgundy); Louis the German receives Eastern Francia (Germany). However, Lothar initially claims overlordship over all three regions and Louis and Charles have to go to war to convince him to relent.

843

The Treaty of Verdun sees the official division of the empire between Charlemagne's surviving three grandsons, with rule over the empire as a whole being nominal.

840 - 855

Lothar I of Middle (Italian) Franks rules the empire.

855 - 875

Louis II of Middle (Italian) Franks rules the empire.

875 - 877

Charles II the Bald of the Western Franks rules the empire.

881 - 888

Charles III of Eastern Franks rules the empire.

888

The rule of the Holy Roman Empire falls to non-Frankish emperors when the weak Charles is deposed by the Germans.

Germanic Roman Emperors
AD 888 - 962

In 888, Charles III of the Eastern Franks was deposed by the Germans and the Frankish empire was officially divided between East and West. The western section became France, the eastern section, the Holy Roman Empire (modern Germany). Berengar of Friuli gained the eastern section. Five stem duchies emerged at the same time in Germany, all of which were powerful divisions of the old territory, and these were Bavaria, Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, and Thuringia.

888 - 891

Berengar I of Friuli

King.

891 - 894

Wido / Guy / Guido

Emperor. Crowned by Pope Stephen VI. Duke of Spoleto.

894 - 896

Lambert

Emperor. Duke of Spoleto.

896 - 899

Arnulf, King of Germany

Emperor. His illegitimate son became king of Lotheringia.

901 - 905

Louis III of Lower Burgundy

III of Italy & Empire (901-905).

911

The Frankish empire disintegrates and the German kingdom of East Francia (the nascent Holy Roman Empire) is formally secured by elected native German rulers. Conrad I is the first to be elected, and a large-scale political reorganisation of south-western Germany creates the stem duchy of Swabia.

915 - 922

Berengar I of Friuli

King of Italy (905-922). Restored as emperor.

922

The death of Berengar due to the machinations of Italian princes frustrates hopes for a united Italy, especially those of Pope John X who had granted him the imperial crown.

922 - 933

Rudolf (II) of Upper Burgundy

933 - 947

Hugh of Arles

936

The territory west of the Oder is incorporated into the March of the Billungs and the North March of the Holy Roman Empire, allowing the native regions to be conquered and settled by Germans.

947 - 950

Lothair II of Arles

II of Italy.

950 - 961

Berengar II of Ivrea

II of Italy.

961

The Germanic emperors are overthrown by the Saxon king of Germany, Otto I.

Saxon Emperors / Kings of Germany
AD 962 - 1024

With the accession to power of the Saxon king of Germany, Otto I, the power of the Germanic Roman Empire was confirmed, subsuming previous names including East Francia and the kingdom of Germany. Formerly Carolingian Italy was also under their control.

962 - 974

Otto I

King of the Saxons.

963

Following on from a previous appeal from Pope Agapetus II to free the papacy from outside control, Otto has Pope John accused in an ecclesiastical court. The pope is deposed and replaced, but manages to mutilate Otto's representatives in the city and has himself reinstated, albeit temporarily.

967

Otto I confirms all of Venice's privileges.

973 - 983

Otto II

978

The foreign policy of Lothair V of France drives Otto II to invade Lorraine. The king manages to repulse him, aided by Hugh Capet, count of Paris. In return, Lothair later tries to destabilise the Holy Roman Empire when Otto's infant son succeeds to the throne.

983

Otto II declares peace with Venice and confirms its commercial privileges.

983 - 1002

Otto III

Established archbishopric in Poland.

983 - 991

Theophanu

Mother, empress and regent. Died 991.

1000

On 7 to 15 March the Congress Of Gniezno (the capital of Poland) is held. Otto III establishes an archbishopric in Gniezno with three new bishoprics in Krakow (Cracow) for Little Poland, Wroclaw for Silesia, and Kolobrzeg for Pomerania, plus the reaffirmation of the old bishopric in Poznan.

1001 - 1002

Having taken direct control of Rome in 998, Otto's dream of recreating the Roman empire united together with the Papacy falls apart when the people of Rome revolt against him and force him from the city. He dies on the way back to the city with an army.

1002 - 1024

Henry II the Saint

Duke Henry IV of Bavaria.

1002

Swabia loses Alsace, which is separated from it by Henry II following Duke Herman's opposition to his accession as king and emperor. Herman had seen himself as a suitable candidate for the title.

1009

The annals of the town of Quedlinburg in Germany report the arrival of Saint Brunon, known more normally as Bonifatius, on missionary work among the Prussians. His attempt ends in failure, and it is believed he is killed together with his eighteen companions somewhere in the vicinity of the Lithuanian border (the first mention of 'Lithuania' in written sources).

1024

The Saxons lose their hold on the throne to Franconian emperors.

Franconian Emperors
AD 1024 - 1138

1024 - 1039

Conrad II the Salian

Conrad VI of Franconia. Inherited Frankish Burgundy (1032).

1024

Conrad II the Salian is also duke of Franconia, and should not be confused with his cousin, Conrad II the Younger, future duke of Carinthia, although both are candidates for the imperial throne in this year. Conrad the Salian is married to Gisela, daughter of Duke Herman II of Swabia.

1027 - 1030

Ernest II of Swabia takes part in an unsuccessful rebellion against Conrad II. As a result, he is captured, but his mother, Gisela, intercedes to prevent his execution and he is imprisoned instead. It is possible that Gisela governs the duchy during this period.

1039 - 1056

Henry III the Black

Henry I of Franconia & Swabia (1039-1056).

1056 - 1106

Henry IV

Henry of Franconia.

1064

The margraviate of Baden is formed in eastern central Swabia during the general political collapse in Germany which dominates this century.

1076 - 1122

A long-running investiture controversy is triggered when the Pope challenges the authority of European monarchs to control appointments (investitures) for church officials in their own countries (such as deciding who to appoint as a bishop, for example). It is another step in restoring the power of the church and one that is not resolved until a compromise is reached under the terms of the Concordat of Worms in 1122, but the Holy Roman Empire, the main papal opponent in the dispute, is permanently weakened by it.

1077 - 1080

[Rudolf of Rheinfelden]

Rival. Duke of Swabia (1057-1079).

1080

Anti-pope Clement III is appointed by the exasperated Henry IV. The emperor has already been excommunicated twice by Pope Gregory VII for opposing his reforms which will involve a loss of established imperial power over the papacy.

1080

The bid by Rudolf of Rheinfelden to oppose Henry IV and secure the throne fails when he is fatally wounded during the Battle on the Elster on 15 October 1080. Despite his forces beating those of Henry, his rebellion falls apart without his leadership.

1081 - 1093

[Hermann of Luxemburg]

Rival.

1093 - 1101

[Conrad of Franconia]

Rival.

1106 - 1125

Henry V

m Matilda, 13 yr-old daughter of Henry I of England.

1107

The establishment of the German duchy of Pomerania leads to more and more conquest of native lands on the southern Baltic coast and a gradual end to native rule.

1125

Upon Henry's death, Matilda is recalled to the English royal court and plays a key role in the civil war against Stephen. Frederick II of Swabia puts himself forward as a candidate for the imperial title but is defeated by the successful election of Lothar. Conflict erupts between the two and their supporters.

1125 - 1137

Lothar II

Duke of Saxony.

1137

The rivalry for the imperial title between Emperor Lothar and his main rival, Frederick II of Swabia, has a destabilising effect on Germany as a whole. The county of Württemberg is formed in western central Swabia as another step towards the total disintegration of the duchy during the general political crisis in the country.

Hohenstaufen (Swabian) Emperors
AD 1138 - 1268

The Hohenstaufen dynasty gained power in the duchy of Swabia through the marriage of Duke Frederick I to Agnes of Germany, granddaughter of Henry I the Black (former Franconian emperor). It swiftly became one of the most powerful families, holding onto the duchy for most of the remainder of its existence and supplying a dynasty of emperors.

The heir apparent to the imperial throne was traditionally titled 'king of the Romans'. The title originally referred to the uncrowned emperor himself, but by the twelfth century it was being used for the heir following his election to that role during his predecessor's lifetime, but before he succeeded to the throne.

1138 - 1152

Conrad III

Uncrowned. Conrad I of Franconia.

1152 - 1190

Frederick I Barbarossa

Duke Frederick III of Swabia.

1167

Frederick IV of Swabia, gifted the duchy by his cousin, Frederick Barbarossa, dies in Rome while on campaign there. Frederick Barbarossa passes the duchy onto his own three year-old son. He effectively controls it directly through his tight control of the succession, not only through these two Fredericks, but also through Frederick VI, who only survives him by a year.

1177

Venice offers hospitality to Pope Alexander III and Frederick Barbarossa, and the republic arbitrates the peace between them following Barbarossa's defeat at Legnano the year before (29 May 1176).

1180

Frederick comes into conflict with Henry Welf, duke of Bavaria. Frederick dispossesses Henry of his lands and passes Bavaria to the Wittelsbachs. Henry's Saxon duchy is also divided while the vassalage of Pomerania is taken directly by the emperor.

1180 - 1202

German crusaders are sent into the Baltic territories of Latvia and Estonia to ensure the tribes there are Christianised, although the true reason is a land grab.

1190 - 1197

Henry VI

Son. King of Naples & Sicily (1194-1197).

1198 - 1208

[Philip]

Rival. Duke of Swabia (1196-1208). Murdered.

1198 - 1212

Otto IV of Brunswick

Earl of York (1190-1218). Duke of Swabia (1208-1212).

1212 - 1250

Frederick II
 

King of Naples & Sicily (1197-1250). Duke of Swabia (1212-1216). King of Jerusalem (1225-1228).

1215 - 1216

The confirmation of Frederick's election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1215 allows him to devolve power in Swabia to his son, Henry, in 1216, while he concentrates on the trappings of higher office. In 1220 Henry also shares his office as co-emperor. Although he is named Henry VIII, his numbering is not official, as he is not sole emperor. That number is reused by Henry of Luxembourg in 1308-1313.

1219 - 1227

German prince-bishops consolidate their conquest of the central Baltics (modern Latvia and South Estonia), otherwise known as Livonia, while the Danish kingdom takes North Estonia. In 1227, the overlordship of Pomerania is recovered by Frederick II from the Danes.

1220 - 1235

Henry (VII)

Son. King of Naples & Sicily (1212-17). Duke of Swabia (1216-35).

1228 - 1229

When the Fifth Crusade (Second Expedition) is decreed, Frederick II is excommunicated both for not taking part and then for going and negotiating the possession of Jerusalem (until 1244). To rub salt into the wound, Pope Gregory IX invades his territories while he is away, and it is probably this invasion which regains control of Spoleto for the Papal States. Relations between the pope and the emperor steadily decline thereafter, to the point where they are constantly at war with one another.

1245

Due to Frederick's agents acting in the Papal States, Pope Innocent is forced to leave Rome in disguise and make his way to Lyon in France. He gathers together all the bishops who can make their way there and holds the First Council of Lyon. The emperor is excommunicated (again) and declared deposed, relieving his subjects of their allegiance to him. This sends shockwaves throughout Europe, and Innocent's life is only spared from retribution by the death of the emperor in 1250.

1246 - 1247

[Henry Raspe]

Rival. Last landgrave of Thuringia.

1247 - 1256

[William of Holland]

Rival.

1250 - 1254

Conrad IV
 

Uncrowned. King of Jerusalem (1228-1254). Duke of Swabia (1235-1254). King of Naples & Sicily (1250-1254).

1254 - 1273

With the death of Conrad by malaria, his young son, Conradin is recognised as the new duke of Swabia and also as the new emperor by his supporters. He fails to actually succeed his father in the latter role, however, and an interregnum follows in which no sole emperor is recognised and Germany begins a period of collapse. This involves the break-up of stem duchies such as Swabia and Franconia.

1260 - 1274

The Livonian Knights and Teutonic Knights are defeated severely, at the Battle of Durbe in Livonia by the Samogitians. As a result, numerous rebellions break out all across the Baltics, including a general uprising throughout Prussia. The Prussians win several battles against the hard-pressed Knights and by 1264 the situation is critical. Reinforcements arrive from Germany and the Order launches a fresh offensive to end the rebellion by 1274.

Non-Dynastic Emperors
AD 1273 - 1437

1257 - 1272

[Richard of Cornwall]

Candidate.

1257 - 1284

[Alfonso X of Castile]

Elected candidate. Never acceded throne.

c.1267

Part of the territory of Swabia, an obscure and unimportant part in the mountainous west of the duchy, is given over to the newly formed county of Vaduz.

1273 - 1291

Rudolph I of Habsburg

Uncrowned. Duke of Austria, Carinthia, & Swabia.

1278

Feeling in the German nobility is against the idea of a successful, conquering Czech king, so they support Rudolf so that he is able to wrest the duchy of Austria from Ottokar, and kill the Przemysl king in battle on the Moravia Field, on the right bank of the River Morava in Austria.

1292 - 1298

Adolf of Nassau

Uncrowned. Count of Nassau-Weilburg.

1306 - 1307

[Rudolph III of Habsburg]

Uncrowned. Duke of Austria. King of Bohemia-Moravia.

1307 - 1308

[Heinrich VI of Kaernten / Tirol]

Uncrowned. King of Bohemia-Moravia.

1298 - 1308

Albert I of Habsburg

Uncrowned. Duke of Austria.

1308

Thanks to Albert's failure to address the problem of adequate compensation for the loss of Styria in 1283 by his brother, Rudolph II, the king is assassinated by Rudolph's son, John. John is named 'Parricide', and continues to hold his inherited claim on Swabia.

1308 - 1313

Henry VII of Luxembourg

Procured title for his son, who became King John of Bohemia.

1313

With the death of John Parricide, any claim to the former Swabian duchy dies with him. Large areas of its territory have already gone to the established county of Württemberg and the margraviate of Baden. Territory formerly belonging to the Alemanni people also later forms parts of Austria (Vorarlberg), France (Alsace) and Switzerland, as well as the Bavarian Swabia region of Bavaria.

1314 - 1347

Louis IV Wittelsbach of Bavaria

m Margaret, countess of Holland (1324). Senator of Rome (1328).

1314 - 1322

When Louis IV (Louis the Bavarian) is elected German king in 1314, a minority faction elects Frederick the Fair of Hapsburg as emperor. Louis defeats Frederick in 1322, but the Pope refuses to recognise or crown him, so Louis has himself crowned emperor by representatives of the Roman people. This coronation is part of an agreement that has been reached with Frederick whereby the latter is crowned king of the Romans to administer Germany as regent while Louis will fulfil his role from Italy.

The vigorous king of Bavaria and HRE Louis IV also became king of Italy in 1327

1325 - 1330

Frederick the Fair of Habsburg

Frederick IV of Austria. Withdraws from regency, returns home.

1328

Following the refusal of Pope John XXII to recognise him, Louis IV invades Italy and sets up Nicholas V as the first anti-pope of the Great Schism.

1343

The St George's Day Uprising in Estonia sees a revolt defeated by the Livonian Knights, using a mixture of treachery and battle. Three years later, the Danish king sells North Estonia to the knights. All of Estonia is now ruled by a German nobility class.

1346 - 1347

Pope Clement VI declares Louis IV deposed and secures the election of Charles IV. Louis successfully resists his rival until he dies in a hunting accident.

1347 - 1378

Charles IV of Luxembourg

Grandson of Henry VII. King of Bohemia, Elector of Brandenburg.

1347 - 1349

[Günther of Schwarzburg]

1378 - 1400

Wenzel / Wenceslas of Luxembourg

Son of Charles IV. King Bohemia, Hungary, Elector Brandenburg.

1400 - 1410

Rupert of the Palatinate

Uncrowned.

1410 - 1437

Sigismund of Luxembourg

Son of Charles IV. King of Bohemia, Elector of Brandenburg.

Sigismund marries Mary of Anjou, Queen of Hungary. In 1415 the electorate of Brandenburg is purchased from the Holy Roman Empire by the Hohenzollerns from southern Germany.

1410 - 1411

[Jobst of Moravia]

Rival. Elector of Brandenburg. Duke of Luxembourg.

Habsburg Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (First Reich)
AD 1437 - 1806

1438 - 1439

Albert II

Uncrowned. King of Bohemia. Archduke Albert V of Austria.

1440 - 1493

Frederick III

Last HRE crowned at Rome. Archduke Frederick V of Austria.

1493 - 1519

Maximilian I

Uncrowned. Ruled Belgium, Burgundy, Netherlands & Austria.

1494 - 1495

The county of Holland passes to the son of Emperor Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, Philip, later king consort of Castile. The following year, an alliance is formed between Naples, the Pope, Milan, Venice, and the emperor in order to defend Italy from Charles VIII of France.

1509

The League of Cambrai is formed with France, Castile, Hungary, the Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire, and Ferrara against Venice. Venice is defeated at Agnadello.

1519 - 1556

Charles V

Charles I of Spain, II of Holland, I of Austria. Abdicated (d.1558).

1519

Charles V is the last emperor to be crowned by the Pope as emperor and king of Italy, the ceremony taking place at Bologna in Italy.

1520 - 1521

The bishopric of Courland is created a prince-bishopric of the Holy Roman Empire in 1520, with this being formalised the following year.

1527

Pope Clement has sided with France to ward off domination of the papacy by the Holy Roman Empire. With the French having been defeated in Italy, and the Imperial/Spanish troops remaining unpaid, they rebel and sack Rome. Amongst the destruction wrought on the city, the tombs of Sixtus IV and Julius II are destroyed.

1558 - 1564

Ferdinand I

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1559

The last German bishop of the Estonian bishopric of Ösel-Wiek sells the castle and the town of Kuressaare to the Danes, who also take Courland.

1564 - 1576

Maximilian II

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1562

The German prince-bishops sell off the last of their land in the Baltics, including the bishopric of Ösel-Wiek.

1564

Control of Bohemia, Moravia and Hungary taken fully by the Habsburgs as Holy Roman Emperors, although they still undergo a separate coronation to be confirmed as kings of Bohemia.

1576 - 1612

Rudolf II

Uncrowned. Archduke Frederick V of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1608

The county of Vaduz is elevated to a principality.

1612 - 1619

Matthias

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. King of Bohemia.

1619 - 1620

Bohemia falls temporarily outside HRE control, before being fully absorbed into it the following year.

1619 - 1637

Ferdinand II

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria.

1637 - 1657

Ferdinand III

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria.

1648

The near-constant warfare and rapid change brought about by the Reformation and its Papal response, the Counter Reformation, is finally ended by the Peace of Westphalia. Under its terms, Pomerania is carved up, with Sweden losing Further-Pomerania to Brandenburg-Prussia, while retaining Nearer-Pomerania. The northern part of the Netherlands emerges as an independent state under the house of Orange. The bitter Marburger Succession Conflict between Hessen-Kassel and Hessen-Darmstadt sees part of Hessen-Marburg ceded to Darmstadt to end the quarrel. Switzerland gains full independence from the Austrian-dominated Holy Roman Empire.

1658 - 1705

Leopold I

Uncrowned. Archduke Leopold VIII of Austria.

1701

The electorate of Brandenburg is elevated to a kingdom.

1705 - 1711

Joseph I

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria.

1711 - 1740

Charles VI

Uncrowned. Archduke Charles II of Austria.

1719

The principality of Liechtenstein is granted for the new ruling house of the former county of Vaduz.

1740 - 1780

Maria Theresa

Heiress of Austria. Archduchess of Austria.

1740 - 1748

The War of Succession.

1772

The Habsburgs gain parts of Little Poland and Red Ruthenia in southern Poland during the First Partition.

1742 - 1745

Charles VII

Uncrowned. Duke Charles Albert of Bavaria.

1745 - 1765

Francis I of Lorraine

Uncrowned.

1765 - 1790

Joseph II

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria.

1790 - 1792

Leopold II

Uncrowned. Archduke of Austria. Died suddenly.

1792 - 1806

Francis II
 

Uncrowned. Archduke Francis of Austria. Last 'Holy Roman' Emperor. Became Francis I of Austria.

1792 - 1793

Following a declaration of war against republican France in 1792, the Habsburgs take part in the Second Partition of Poland-Lithuania in 1793.

1795

The Habsburgs gain Krakow and Little Poland during the Third Partition of Poland-Lithuania.

1801

The Peace of Luneville compensates several German princes for losses of territory by assigning to them ecclesiastical land in Germany taken from the Pope.

1806

The year sees the formal end of the Holy Roman Empire (First Reich) as it is dissolved by Emperor Napoleon I of France (the Prussian-led Second Reich forms in 1871). The Habsburg emperors revert to their Austrian title, raising the former archduchy to the status of Austrian empire, as it still holds almost all its eastern territories.