Middle East Kingdoms

Ancient Mesopotamia

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Mesopotamian States

In Sumer and Akkad in southern Mesopotamia the first city states appeared in the fourth millennium, and by the third they were flourishing with creative ideas and large populations. The relatively few northern Mesopotamian (and Syrian) states which appeared in the third millennium BC differed somewhat from their southern contemporaries. Instead of relying on river irrigation, the agriculture of the north was rain-fed, so yields were lower and larger areas had to be cultivated (though with less labour). As a result, northern cities tended to be smaller with more people living in outlying settlements. Although they were still city states at heart, they had more of an appearance of being small kingdoms.

Amorites began to filter into Syria and Mesopotamia from around 2500 BC. The Akkadians called them Amurru, and groups of them arrived in Sumer where they eventually replaced the Sumerians as rulers in Mesopotamia. In the north they founded many new city states in areas which were much less developed or advanced than in the south. By 2100 BC non-Semitic Hurrians were filtering into these newly developed areas from the north, and between the indigenous population, the groups of Akkadians who had been there for some time, and the new arrivals, the population and culture in the north was extremely varied. Although most of the Syrian and northern Mesopotamian peoples spoke Semitic dialects by the first part of the second millennium BC, Hurrian names could be found as far south as Nippur, indicating a level of linguistic heterogeneity throughout much of Mesopotamia. Scribal practices were adopted from the south and were apparently taught by Babylonians.

c.3300 BC

The earliest civilisation flourishes in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia during the Uruk IV period. Making the most of new irrigation systems, the population expands rapidly and creates approximately a dozen city states.

Early Bronze Age pottery

Early Bronze Age pottery produced in Mesopotamia around 3000 BC

c.2600 - c.2200 BC

By this date, Sumerian civilisation in the south is at its height. Although their creation is later than those of Sumer, the early Akkaddian or Amorite city states of the north are less well attested, and many of them are only known from later writings.

Those which can be identified by name include Apum, Ashnakkum (modern Tell Chagar Bazar), Nawar, and Urkesh in the Khabur region, Harran, Mari and Terqa along the Euphrates, and Arbel, Ashur, and Ninevah in the east (the early Assyrians). These states are in contact with each other through diplomatic and commercial means.

Some of these centres in northern, or upper, Mesopotamia - Mari, and Nawar - seem to be able to impose their will on surrounding states, but many of the details of their military actions are unknown.

c.2200 BC

Northern Mesopotamia is disrupted by invasions by barbarians from the north and by the cold, dry period in the Middle East which lasts for three hundred years.

c.2000s BC

During the flourishing of Ur's third dynasty in Sumer, Syrian states maintain friendly relations with the south. However, following the fall of Ur there is a reduction in the number and sizes of settlements in the north for reasons unknown. Documentation suffers a gap of almost two centuries before the start of the archives at Mari.

c.1850 - 1776 BC

Northern Mesopotamia has recovered fully and a wave of newer small states or fully urbanised cities become apparent, including Andarig, Apum, Karana, Qattara, Razama, Shushara (Shemshara), and Terqa, making up a system of kingdoms whose rulers keep large palace archives of diplomatic correspondence showing how vital it is that they remain informed. In about 1809 BC, Northern Mesopotamia and areas of Syria are conquered by the kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia. But after the death of the kingdom's founder in about 1776 BC, it swiftly breaks up and the old order reasserts itself. Local rulers are constantly wary of the larger states, Babylon, Elam or Eshnunna, which can make or break them.

c.1800? BC

Yahdun-Lim of Mari sends troops to join those of Yamkhad to fight against several hostile Syrian 'states', including Tuttul, defeating their armies and attacking their towns. The other states which are allied to Tuttul and are defeated alongside it are as follows (all three are Yaminite towns located close by Terqa, under Mari's overall control, and headed by little more than tribal organisations):

La'um

Amorite king of the city of Samanum & the land of Ubrabu.

Ayalum

Amorite king of the city of Abattum & the land of Rabbum.

c.1770s BC

Bahdi-Lim, an official of the court of Zimri-Lim of Mari in the city of Tuttul, records the arrival of Dagan's entry into the city, accompanied by two persons. One of these is a Yaminite chief, and the other, Sumu-laba, may also be a chief.

Dadi-hadun

Amorite chief of the tribe of Rabbeans.

Sumu-laba

Amorite chief (possibly) of the clan of the Uprapeans?

c.1760s BC

The city state of Babylon suddenly expands under Hammurabi to conquer huge swathes of southern, central, and northern Mesopotamia, including many of the states mentioned above.

c.1730 - 1720 BC

The Kassites invade Mesopotamia, penetrating deep into the south. There they are defeated by the Sealand Dynasty of Babylon and are expelled from southern Mesopotamia. They retreat north to take over the near-abandoned city of Mari, also expanding into nearby Terqa. By now the intensive palace system of the high number of states in Upper Mesopotamia has become unsustainable. Many cities are abandoned, perhaps due to a combination of popular opposition to the system and changes in rainfall patterns. The historical record for this region disappears.

c.1595 BC

Mursili's Hittites capture and destroy Alep on their way south to sack Babylon, ending the political situation that had characterised Syria and Mesopotamia for four centuries. Many states, such as Apum, all decline. The region enters a dark age which lasts for up to a century and a half in some areas. The power vacuum allows Hurrians to migrate westwards, and the Kassites to take control of Babylon.

c.1450 BC

The Hurrian state of Mitanni suddenly expands to encompass many northern Mesopotamian and Syrian cities.

c.1360 BC

The resurgent Assyrians throw off their overlords, the Hittites, and establish firm control over the heartland of Assyria - the Tigris Valley and the plains to the east, and from Ashur to the Taurus Mountains in the north.

c.1200 BC

In the face of a general collapse of authority in Syria and a marked decline in northern Mesopotamia, including within Assyria, Aramaean tribes migrate into both regions and begin to attack and take over many cities. Some cities are abandoned in the face of these attacks, such as Qattara.

Mesopotamian Empires

The first millennium BC was an age of empires in Mesopotamia. There was a succession of them that would continue to rule the region in one form or another for over a thousand years. First came the Assyrians and their successors, the Babylonians. Then the Persians from the east, the Greeks from the west, the Parthians from the east again, and finally the Islamic empire. Only when the last of these began to weaken did a situation of fragmented states arise to match that of the second millennium BC.

884 BC

As the dark age draws to a close, Assyria rises to become the dominant force in northern Mesopotamia and Syria.

612 - 605 BC

Assyria falls and a resurgent Babylonia gains control of much of its former territory, including Syria, despite an attempt by Egypt to prevent this.

Persian & Greek Satraps

Between 550-539 BC, Persia rose from the Iranian Plateau as a formidable power, and swiftly conquered all of Mesopotamia, Syria, Anatolia, and much more. The new masters administered the captured regions as satrapies, with the post in Mesopotamia first going to one of Cyrus' generals. In the fourth century, the invading Greeks maintained the practise, replacing Persians with Greek or local satraps.

539 - 538 BC

Gaubaruva

First satrap of Babylonia (Mesopotamia) & Syria.

c. 500 BC

Ushtanni

Satrap of Babylonia (Mesopotamia) & Syria.

332 - 323 BC

The region is conquered by the Greek empire under Alexander the Great. Mazaeus, the Persian satrap of Syria, initially plays his part by opposing Alexander, but he eventually surrenders, and Alexander makes him satrap of Mesopotamia.

Propyleum and cella of the Temple of Bel

The propyleum and cella of the Temple of Bel, which incorporates Mesopotamian, Greek and Roman elements and dates primarily to the first and second centuries AD