African Kingdoms

Tunisia

The region which later formed Tunisia originated in the Phoenician settlement of Carthage. Frequent fighting against the republic of Rome saw the city eventually defeated and destroyed in 146 BC. Thereafter the region remained in Roman hands until it was conquered by the Vandali in the fifth and sixth centuries. The resurgent Eastern Roman empire took control of Carthage in AD 534.

In 698 Hasan ibn al-Nu'man defeated Byzantine Emperor Tiberius III at the Battle of Carthage, and Africa was abandoned to the Islamic empire. Carthage was again destroyed and was replaced by Tunis as the regional capital. The country itself would eventually bear the same name, that of Tunisia. The final Islamic conquest was not an easy one, however, as the Berbers of the interior were intent on fighting everyone, Byzantines or Islamic, and they continued their resistance.

647 - 649

The troops of Gregory the Patrician in Carthage are severely defeated by the invading troops of the Islamic empire, and Gregory himself is killed in 648. The province appears to be occupied for perhaps a year or so before being abandoned in 649, allowing Byzantium to regain some level of control there. The country's interior remains firmly in the hands of the native Berbers, who repel any attempts to subdue them.

670 - 698

Khusalah

Berber leader.

686

The Islamic wali of Ifriqiyya, Zoheir ibn Kais, leads a force which defeats a joint army of Byzantines and Berbers in Carthage commanded by Berber leader Khusalah on the Qairawan plain. The victors are not strong enough to follow up their victory.

698 - 703

Kahinah

Female Berber leader.

703

The Berbers are defeated and Tunisia is firmly in Islamic hands.

Walis of Ifriqiyya and the Maghreb
AD 665 - 745

Ifriqiyya was the Islamic term for the former Roman province of Africa, covering the coastal regions of what are now eastern Algeria, Libya, and Tunisia. An Islamic attack of 670 led by Oqba ibn Nafi'i bypassed Byzantine coastal defences and established a base at Kairouan. From here they were able to conquer the region in stages, eventually defeating both Byzantium and the native Berbers, but the site was not an especially good one and was soon abandoned. Today it is merely ruins.

665 - 670

Muawiya ibn Hudaij al-Saquni

First Islamic wali of Ifriqiyya and the Maghreb.

667

The Islamic empire snatches control of parts of the region from Byzantium's Carthage, and launches raids further west.

The Arab empire conquered Byzantine Carthage through a series of campaigns over the space of half a century

670 - 675

Oqba ibn Nafi'i al-Fihri / Uqba

670

Oqba ibn Nafi'i establishes a base of operations at Kairouan and begins the erection of the Great Mosque, generally thought to be the oldest sanctuary in the western section of the Islamic empire.

675 - 681

Abu-l Mohadjir Dinar al-Makhzumi

681 - 682

Oqba ibn Nafi'i

Restored.

682 - 688

Zoheir ibn Kais al-Balawi / Zuhayr

686

Zoheir ibn Kais leads a force which defeats a joint army of Byzantines and Berbers in Carthage commanded by Berber leader Khusalah on the Qairawan plain. The victors are not strong enough to follow up their victory.

688 - 698

Hasan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani

695 - 698

Hasan ibn al-Nu'man captures Carthage in 695 and advances into the Atlas Mountains. Taking advantage of his absence, a Byzantine fleet arrives to retake Carthage in 697, but within a year Hasan returns and defeats Emperor Tiberius III at the Battle of Carthage. Africa is abandoned to the Islamic empire. Carthage is again destroyed and is replaced by Tunis as the regional capital.

698 - 715

Musa ibn Nusair al-Lakhmi

Began the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Spain.

712 - 715

Abd Allah ibn Musa

Regent during Musa's time in Spain.

715 - 718

Muhammad ibn Yezid

718 - 719

Isma'il ibn Abdallah

Probable grandson of Abu-l Mohadjir (675-681).

719 - 720

Yezid ibn Dinar

Assassinated.

720

Muhammad ibn Yezid

Briefly restored as governor until a replacement arrived.

720

Muhammad ibn Aws al-Ansari

720 - 728

Bishr ibn Safwan al-Kalbi

Former governor of Egypt (720-721).

728 - 734

Obeïda ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Salami

Governor during the Great Berber Revolt in the Maghreb.

734 - 741

Ubeidallah ibn al-Habhab al-Maousili

741

Kulthum ibn Iyadh al-Kushayri

From Feb-Oct.

741

Balj ibn Bishr al-Qushayri

Formal wali in Córdoba.

741 - 742

Abd al-Rahman ibn Oqba al-Ghaffari

De facto wali in Kairouan.

742 - 745

Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi

Former governor of Egypt (721-724 & 737-741).

744 - 746

A successional dispute for the Umayyad caliphate sees an army march on Damascus, where a new caliph is proclaimed. Rebellions and revolts break out across the empire, one of which results in a change in command in Tunisia (Ifriqiyya), as a dynasty of governors is established. Handhala ibn Safwan al-Kalbi consents to return to Islamic Damascus.

Oqbid Dynasty
AD 745 - 768

The entire region was disturbed during this period, as revolts sprang up preceding the fall of the Umayyad caliphs. The Oqbids, otherwise known as the Fihrids, or al-Fihris, were an Arabian clan known as Banu Fihr. They grabbed the province of Ifriqiyya in a quickly-launched coup and subsequently established the first Islamic dynasty in Tunisia. They began the trend towards increased local control at the expense of the caliphate.

745 - 755

Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib

Self-proclaimed emir after a coup.

755

Ilyas ibn Habib

Brother?

755 - 757

Habib ibn Abd al-Rahman

Son of Abd al-Rahman.

757 - 758

'Asim ibn Jamil al-Warfajumi

A Sufrite.

758

Abd al-Malik ibn Abi-l-Dja'd

An Ibadite. Governor in Kairouan (758-761).

758 - 761

Abu-l-Khattab Abd al-A'la ibn Assamh

Abbsasid governor in Kairouan.

761 - 765

Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'i

Abbsasid governor.

765

Isa ibn Yusef al-Khurassani

Abbsasid governor.

765 - 766

al-Aghlab ibn Salim at-Tamimi

Forefather of the Aghlabid dynasty.

766 - 767

al-Hasan ibn Harb al-Kindi

Abbsasid governor.

767 - 768

al-Aghlab ibn Salim at-Tamini

Restored.

Muhallid Dynasty
AD 768 - 800

The Muhallids turned out to be a great family of governors which originated from the Arabic tribe of Azd. However, resentment at the direct rule of the Abbasid caliphs from their capital far to the east grew, and this came to a head towards the end of the eighth century, terminating the Muhallid period of office.

768 - 771

'Umar ibn Hafs

771 - 787

Yezid ibn Hatim

787

Daoud ibn Yezid

Son.

787 - 791

Raouh ibn Hatim

791 - 793

Nasr ibn Habib

793 - 795

al-Fadhl ibn Raouh

Son of Raouh.

795 - 797

Harmatha ibn A'youn / Herthema ibn A'yun

Former wali of Egypt (794-795).

797 - 799

Muhammad ibn Muqatil al-'Aqqi

799 - 800

Temmam ibn Tamim at-Tamimi

800

Muhammad ibn Muqatil

Restored.

800

The Islamic Aghlabids take control of Tunisia and become independent from Abbasid Arabia.

Aghlabid Dynasty
AD 800 - 909

The Aghlabids were originally the faithful Abbasid Oqbid governors of Tunisia and (they claimed) Algeria, and they only gradually drifted out of central supervision and control. Their greatest independent project was the conquest of Sicily, which they occupied from 827-878, and which remained part of the Islamic empire until the arrival of the Normans.

800 - 812

Ibrahim I

Recognised as hereditary ruler of Tunisia by Abbasids.

812

Any claim the Aghlabids hold over Algeria ends with Ibrahim's death.

812 - 817

Adbullah I

Son.

817 - 838

Ziyadat Allah I

Brother.

827

The Aghlabids continue their expansionist policy by invading Sicily.

Under the Aghlabids the Great Mosque of Kairouan helped the city redevelop following its decline since the eighth century

838 - 841

al-Aghlab

Brother.

841 - 847

Muhammad I Abul-Abbas

Son.

841 - 843

Muhammad I captures Bari and Taranto (temporarily) on Sicily in 841 and Apulia and Messina in 843.

846

An Aghlabid fleet sails up the River Tiber and attacks Rome. The residents at the foreign schools - Franks, Saxons, Lombards and Frisians - help defend the fortifications, but further Saracen raids are to come.

846 - 847

Abu Ja'far Ahmad

Brother. Usurped his brother's throne. Captured and exiled.

847 - 856

Muhammad I Abul-Abbas

Restored.

856 - 863

Ahmad

Son.

863

Ziyadat Allah II

863 - 875

Muhammad II

Nephew. Captured Malta.

874

Plague enters Ifriqiyya thanks to a caravan entering the region from Mecca. The region is hit hard and is greatly depopulated. Despite this, it subsequently flourishes economically.

875 - 902

Ibrahim II

Brother. Forced to abdicate following a tyrannical reign.

878

Syracuse in Sicily is captured, but the island falls out of Aghlabid control, submitting to the Abbasids directly.

902 - 903

Abdullah II

Son. Murdered by his son.

903 - 909

Ziyadat Allah III

Son. Had all his brothers executed to avoid any rivals.

909

Thanks to the murder of Abdullah, and Ziyadat's massacring of his brothers and uncles, the Aghlabids have lost all prestige in the eyes of the people. Ifriqiyya is conquered by the Fatimids, who quickly also conquer Morocco, Syria, Algeria, and Arabia. Ziyadat escapes, but dies in Palestine while failing to secure support to recapture his territory.

Fatamid Dynasty
AD 909 - 1171

The Fatamids were considered to be descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib (Rashidun caliph in 656-661) and his wife, Fatima, daughter of the Prophet Muhammed. Emerging from the Kutama Berbers of eastern Algeria, they founded the city of Mahdia, making it their capital. They subsequently conquered Morocco in 926 and Cairo in 969 and were able to retain their conquests on the basis of being accepted as the last unifying force in the Islamic world. Al Mahdi Obaidallah claimed the title of caliph in direct opposition to the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad, and Egypt would emerge as their battle ground.

909 - 934

al Mahdi Obaidallah

Founded the Fatamids as a ruling dynasty.

909 - 934

The Shiite (Sevener) caliphate is established in North Africa to rival the Orthodox Abbasid caliphate.

914 - 921

Egypt is invaded for the first time by a Fatimid force sent by Caliph al-Mahdi Obaidallah, who has established himself at Kairawan. His son successfully captures Alexandria in 919, and it takes repeated influxes of reinforcements from Baghdad to finally free the country in 921.

915

As the latest in a series of conflicts with Muslims, the forces of the new Byzantine strategos of Bari, one Nicolaus Picingli, assemble alongside those of various other southern Italian princes in the Christian League. It includes Landulf I of Benevento, John I and Docibilis II of Gaeta, Gregory IV and John II of Naples, Pope John X, Guaimar II of Salerno, and Alberic I of Spoleto. The allied Byzantine-Lombard army fights and defeats the Fatamids at the Battle of Garigliano, a drawn-out combination of fights and a siege. The Muslim forces find themselves in a worsening situation and eventually attempt to flee, only to be captured and killed. It is a militarily significant victory in the fight against Islamic advances in Italy.

934 - 946

al Qaim

946 - 952

al Mansur

952 - 975

al Muizz

967 - 969

Governors, or sharifs, are introduced to command in the holy city of Mecca in 967. Two years later, Egypt is occupied. The caliphate is removed to alQahirah (Cairo), and al Muizz transfers there in 973.

975 - 996

al Aziz

996 - 1021

al Hakim

1009

On 27 September, Caliph al Hakim orders the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, a Christian holy site.

1021 - 1035

az Zahir

1035 - 1094

al Mustansir

1057

The invasion of the Banu Hillal sees Kairouan destroyed. The Zirids are reduced to ruling a narrow coastal strip while the remainder of the territory fragments into petty Bedouin emirates.

1094 - 1101

al Mustali

1101 - 1130

al Amir

1123

Venice is victorious against the Egyptian fleet at Ashkelon.

1130 - 1149

al Hafiz.

1146 - 1160

Tunis is occupied by the Norman county of Sicily.

1149

The collateral line assumes the throne and is no longer considered to be Shiite Imams. The Almohad dynasty of Morocco occupies Tunisia.

1149 - 1154

az Zafir

1154 - 1160

al Faiz

1160 - 1171

al Âdid

Died a natural death.

1169

Damascus is involved in a race with the Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem to conquer Fatamid Egypt. On 2 January 1169, the Crusaders retreat from their siege of the walls of Cairo and evacuate the region, allowing Asad ad-Din Shirkuh to take control as vizier (prime minister) under the Fatamids, founding the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt (although not, at this stage, an independent one).

1171 - 1174

The caliph dies, ending Fatamid rule of Egypt and leaving the country in the control of Saladin, under the suzerainty of Mahmud Nur ad-Din of Damascus. The latter's death in 1174 allows Saladin to assert his full control over Egypt, becoming the first Ayyubid sultan.

1171 - 1229

The Almohad dynasty of Morocco remains in command of Tunisia, appointing its own governor in 1207 to manage the day-to-day administration of the state.

Hafsid Dynasty
AD 1229 - 1573

The split between the Almohads and the Hafsids under Abu Zakariya took place in 1229, when this governor of Ifriqiya declared himself to be independent in the former Roman province of Africa and the modern Maghreb; today's Tunisia, eastern Algeria and western Libya. He subsequently built up Tunis as the economic and cultural centre of the empire.

1207 - 1216

Abd al-Wahid

Governor.

1224 - 1229

Abd-Allah

Governor.

1229 - 1249

Abu Zakariya

Governor. Declared himself independent in 1229.

1249 - 1277

Muhammad I al-Mustansir

Took the title of caliph.

1270

Against the advice of the Pope, the Seventh Crusade under St Louis IX of France gets no further than Tunisia, where the king dies of plague during the siege of Tunis on 25 August 1270. His son is proclaimed king under the walls of Tunis.

Louis IX assembles his troops outside the walls of the city of Tunis

1277 - 1279

Yahya II al-Watiq

1279 - 1283

Ibrahim I

1283 - 1284

Ibn Abi Umara

1284 - 1295

Abu Hafs Umar I

1295 - 1309

Muhammad I

1309

Abu Bakr I

1309 - 1311

Aba al-Baqa Khalid an-Nasir

1311 - 1317

Aba Yahya Zakariya al-Lihyani

1317 - 1318

Muhammad II

1318 - 1346

Abu Bakr II

1346 - 1349

Abu Hafs Umar II

1347 - 1350

The Berber Merinids of Morocco destroy the Hafsids, at least temporarily, but their rule in Tunisia is short-lived.

1349

Ahmad I

1350 - 1369

Ishaq II

1369 - 1371

Abu al-Baqa Khalid

1371 - 1394

Abu al-Abbas Ahmad II

1394 - 1434

Abd al-Aziz II

1434 - 1436

Muhammad III

1436 - 1488

Uthman

1488 - 1489

Abu Zakariya Yahya

1489 - 1490

Abd al-Mu'min (Hafsid)

1490 - 1494

Abu Yahya Zakariya

1494 - 1526

Muhammad IV

1526 - 1543

Muhammad V

1543 - 1570

Ahmad III

1573 - 1574

During the course of the century the Hafsids have increasingly become caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Corsairs, supported by the Ottoman empire. The latter conquers Tunis in 1574 and topples the Hafsids, who, at times, had accepted Spanish sovereignty over them. A few last Hafsids claim power but hold virtually none.

1574

Muhammad VI

1574 - 1581

Jafari Yahya 'Jafari the Clean'

1581

Alem Nafirr

1581 - 1881

The last of the Hafsids disappears from history and the Ottoman control of the region is complete.

Ottoman Tunisia (Husainids)
AD 1573 - 1883

The last independent dynasty of Tunisia, the Hafsids, had become increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Corsairs, the latter of which were supported by the Ottoman empire. The empire conquered Tunis in 1574 and toppled the Hafsids, replacing them with Ottoman governors (deys), although the Husainid beys quietly laid a claim to the control of the country. They gained some power in 1666 as de facto regents of Tunisia.

1573 - 1574

Muley Hamida

Actively opposed the Ottoman rule of Tunisia.

? - 1613

Ramdan Bey

1613 - 1631

Murad (I)

1631 - 1666

Hammuda Pasha

1666

The Husainid beys become the de facto authority in Tunisia as regents.

1666 - 1675

Murad (II)

1675 - 1696

Muhamed (II)

1696 - 1699

Ramadan

1698 - 1702

Murad (III) ibn Ali

1702 - 1705

Ibrahim ash-Sharif

1705

The Husainids become official regents of Tunisia.

1705 - 1735

al-Husayn (I) ibn Ali at-Turki

1726

Nominal authority in Tunisia is subordinated to the Ottoman governors of Algeria.

Ottoman currency was used in the region, with these silver kharubs being minted in 1739 during the reign of Mahmud I

1735 - 1756

Ali (I)

1756 - 1759

Muhammad (I) ar-Rashid

Rebelled against Ottoman authority in Aug 1756.

1759 - 1777

Ali (II) ibn Hussein

1777 - 1814

Muhammad ibn 'Ali / Hammuda

Son.

1814

'Uthman ibn Ali

Son of Ali. Sep-Oct only.

1814 - 1824

Mahmud ibn Muhammad

Son of Muhammad.

1821

The period in which nominal authority in Tunisia is subordinated to the Ottoman governors of Algeria is ended.

1824 - 1835

al-Husayn (II) ibn Mahmud

Son.

1835 - 1837

al-Mustafa ibn Mahmud

Brother.

1837 - 1855

Ahmad (I) ibn Mustafa

Son.

1855 - 1859

Muhammad (II) ibn al-Husayn

Son of Husayn.

1859 - 1882

Muhammad (III) as-Sadiq

1882 - 1883

Ali Muddat ibn al-Husayn

Retained his position when France gained control of Tunisia.

1883

Under the pretext of avenging a Tunisian incursion into Algeria, France invades the country, ending Ottoman control.

Modern Tunisia
AD 1883 - Present Day

Tunisia is located on the North African coastline, bordered by Algeria to the west, and Libya to the south and east, and extending into the Sahara Desert to the south. The state is known as the Tunisian Republic, with a capital at Tunis. Its territory falls partly within the ancient domains of the city of Carthage and the Roman province of Africa.

Following its conquest by the Ottoman empire in 1574, Tunisia remained directly controlled by Turkey until the late nineteenth century, when its colonial possessions were being picked apart one by one. France invaded Tunisia under a pretext and made it a protectorate in 1883.

1883 - 1902

Ali Muddat ibn al-Husayn

Retained regency under his new masters.

1902 - 1906

Muhammad (IV) al-Hadi

1906 - 1922

Muhammad (V) an-Nasir

1922 - 1929

Muhammad (VI) al-Habib

1929 - 1942

Ahmad (II) ibn Ali

Son of Ali.

1942 - 1943

Tunisia becomes a major base of operations for the allied forces at the conclusion of the Desert Campaign in the Second World War, following the defeat and surrender of the German forces in the country.

1942 - 1943

Muhammad (VII) al-Munsif

Deposed by France accused of Vichy collaboration. Died 1948.

1943 - 1957

Muhammad (VIII) al-Amin

Son of al-Habib. Styled king from 1950. Officially king in 1956.

1956 - 1957

Muhammad VIII proclaims the independence of Tunisia from France on 20 March 1956. Others within the kingdom see the monarchy as a hindrance to their own ambitions, and Habib Bourguiba topples the king the following year, placing him under house arrest on 15 July 1957. The king never abdicates, but dies in 1962 in Tunis. The monarchy is officially abolished by the new government under Habib Bourguiba. Successive claimants to the throne are now shown with a shaded background.

1957 - 1962

Muhammad (VIII) al-Amin

Titular king following his loss of power in 1957.

1962 - 1969

Crown Prince Husain Bey

Son of an-Nasir. Hereditary heir to the throne and titular king.

1969 - 1974

Prince Mustafa Bey Gouta

Hereditary heir to the throne and titular king.

1974 - 1989

Prince Muhammad al-Taib Bey

Titular king.

1987

Doctors declare Habib Bourguiba unfit to rule and a bloodless coup is launched by Zine El Abidine Ben Ali who caps his seizure of power by claiming the presidency.

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali's authoritarian rule of Tunisia came to an abrupt end in 2011

1987 - 2011

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali

Hard-line authoritarian president. Fled into exile.

1989 - 1992

Prince Sulaiman Bey

Titular king.

1992 - 2001

Prince 'Allalah Bey

Titular king.

2001 - 2004

Prince Shazli Bey

Titular king.

2004 - 2006

Prince Muhi ud-din Bey

Titular king.

2006 - Present

Prince Muhammad Bey

Titular king.

2011

A wave of popular protests against a deeply unpopular and dictatorial government forces the president to flee to Saudi Arabia, paving the way for fresh elections and a new start. The protests strike a chord in Arabs across North Africa and the Middle East, and similar protests are triggered in Bahrain, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Yemen.