Middle East Kingdoms

Carthage / Qarthadasht (Kiriyat Hadasht)

The Phoenician colonisation of North Africa became more intense with the establishment of Carthage on the modern Tunisian coast in the late ninth century BC, at a point between about 843-813 BC, and possibly in 814 BC, when Elissa, sister of King Pumayyaton, fled Tyre. Elissa was married to her uncle, the high priest of Heracles (Melqart), and as such they occupied the second highest position in Tyre after the king himself. Supported in his reign by the people but facing opposition by the aristocracy, the young Pygmalion had Elissa's husband murdered, at which point Elissa and her followers fled to Cyprus (possibly the settlement of Kition), and then to Carthage. Once there, they received presents and greetings from nearby Utica.

The increased Phoenician concentration on the western Mediterranean caused intense competition there, at first with the Greeks who founded colonies along the northern Mediterranean and centuries later with emergent Rome, which sacked Carthage in the mid-second century BC.

Later Greek tales attributed the founding of Carthage to Azoros and Karchedon, which were nothing more than the Greek names for Tyre and Carthage respectively. Records for Carthage are not as good as for its contemporaries in Italy and Greece. The complete destruction of the city by Rome wiped out much, but the state itself seems to have operated under a secretive nature.

c.814 - 760 BC

Elissa Deido / Dido

Sister of the king of Tyre. Colony founder.

814 BC

Carthage becomes a colony of Tyre when it is founded by Elissa, sister of the king of Tyre. The men of Utica greet their brother Phoenicians warmly, and the 'king of Libya', Iarbos, gives them free entry into his territory. He allows Elissa (whom the natives call Deido or Dido, the 'wandering one') to select the hill of Byrsa, where the city is built and named Qarthadasht, or 'new city'. Relations with Tyre are patched up within a generation or two of this event and it would appear that Tyre retains Carthage as a colony.

580 BC

Some Greek settlements in Sicily, such as Syracuse, attempt to drive the Phoenicians from Motya and Panormus (Palermo) in the west of the island. The Carthaginians fear that if the Greeks win the whole of Sicily they will next move onto Sardinia and beyond, isolating the Phoenicians in North Africa. The successful defence of Sicily is followed by attempts to strengthen limited footholds in Sardinia. A fortress at Monte Sirai in Sardinia is the oldest Phoenician military building in the west.

c.540 BC

The threat from the Greeks recedes when Carthage, in alliance with Etruscan cities, backs the Phoenicians of Corsica and succeeds in excluding the Greeks from contact with colonies such as Gadir in southern Iberia.

574 BC

Carthage becomes independent of Tyre. Although many elements of life and government in Carthage are patterned on those of Tyre, the city does not establish a permanent kingship of its own but is instead governed under 'suffet' or the more widely-used Hebrew 'shoftim', meaning 'judges'. The shoftim of Carthage eventually prove to be both executive power and judicial leaders, but they hold no military power. It appears that each shofet is elected by the citizens, and holds office for a one year term. Quite possibly there are two of them at a time, mirroring the system of consulship later used by Rome.

The city of Carthage existed in its original glory for at least four hundred and twenty-eight years before it was destroyed by the Romans

c.580 - c.556 BC

Hanno I

Of the same family as Mago I, below.

c.556 - c.550 BC

Malchus

c.550 - c.510 BC

Mago I

King of Carthage, and more than a (still minor) shofet.

539 BC

All of Phoenicia is submerged within the Persian empire. As a result, many Phoenicians emigrate to the colonies, especially Carthage, which quickly rises to become a major power under the Magonid descendants of Mago, especially under Hanno. Utica quickly becomes a dependency. The Magonids monopolise the position of shofet for a century.

c.510 - 499 BC

Hasdrubaal

509 BC

A century and-a-half of exploitation by the Phoenicians now results in an uprising by the Sardi. The mount a series of attacks against Phoenician settlements, forcing the colonists to call upon Carthage for help. A military force arrives which puts down the uprising and secures most of the island under Carthaginian control.

c.500 BC

Carthage now dominates the Phoenician settlement of Gadir, making it a dependency.

499 - 480 BC

Hamilcar I

Grandson of Mago.

480 BC

Hamilcar lands a huge army in Sicily in order to confront Syracuse (a colony of Corinth) on the island's eastern coast. The Carthaginians are defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Himera. A long struggle ensues with intermittent warfare between Carthage and Syracuse.

Probably a direct result of the defeat is that the king is forced to relinquish most of his powers to the Council of Elders, which is made up of the nobility and aristocratic merchant clans, along with the Tribunal of 104. The kings are allowed to remain in place (as little more than figureheads).

480 - 440 BC

Hanno II the Navigator

c.450 BC

The Barcid family come to prominence as shoftim in the city.

c.460 - c.410 BC

Hamilco I

Ruled the Carthaginian settlement in Sicily.

440 - 406 BC

Hannibal

406 - 396 BC

Hamilco II

396 - 383 BC

Mago II Barceus

383/382 BC

Hamilco III

c.383 BC

As the aristocracy seizes more power through the Council of Elders, two factions emerge. One is that of the aristocrats under Eshmuniaton, while the other is the military faction under Hanno the Great. Hanno's position is closest to the old notion of 'king'. He rides a wave of popular support as the war with Syracuse is once more renewed and Carthage is gripped by ardent nationalism.

383/2-c.382/0 BC

Eshmuniaton / Suniatus

A member of the Council of Elders.

c.382/380 BC

Eshmuniaton is disposed of in the courts when he is condemned for treason. Hanno the Great assumes the position of first citizen, or tyrant, over the city.

There seems to be some confusion amongst academics over the use of 'Hanno the Great'. There are two of them in this list (in 382 BC and 250 BC, along with a powerful second century BC politician not shown here), and the numbering which had begun with the previous two rulers named Hanno is ignored. Here, the numbering from the previous two Hannos is continued, thereby differentiating the two 'Greats' as Hanno III and Hanno IV, but also showing their alternative numbering in brackets.

382 - 360 BC

Hanno III (I) the Great

Returned to temporary power in 340.

367 BC

The war against Syracuse finally comes to an end when Hanno leads a fleet of two hundred ships to a decisive naval victory over the Greeks on Sicily. Soon afterwards, Dionysius is apparently poisoned on the orders of his son.

360 BC

Hanno III apparently steps down from his position as head of state (essentially the 'first among equals' rather than fulfilling the role of a king). However, the disasters of 345-340 BC persuade him to return.

360 - 344 BC

Mago III

345 - 340 BC

The Carthaginians launch a largescale military campaign in Sicily, sending 50,000 infantry backed by cavalry, a large fleet of war chariots, and a large train of siege engines. However, the Greeks of Syracuse receive assistance from Corinth and the Carthaginian forces are driven out. Mago commits suicide rather than face the Tribunal of 104.

Another army is sent, commanded by two generals named Hasdrubal and Hamilcar. This is also defeated, at the Battle of Crimisus, during which the elite 'Sacred Battalion' of three thousand noblemen is annihilated. The defeat is a disaster, ranking as one of Carthage's greatest military disasters. General Hasdrubal is condemned by the Tribunal of 104 and executed.

340 - 339 BC

Hanno III (I) the Great

Executed for rebellion against the council.

339 BC

Hanno attempts to overthrow the Council of Elders, first by having them all assassinated and, when this fails, by organising a revolt. This also fails and Hanno is brutally executed, along with most of his family. Remarkably, his son not only survives, but is trusted with executive power in the city state.

339 - 330 BC

Gisco

Son.

330 - 309 BC

Hamilcar II

310 - 307 BC

Greek armies from Syracuse under Agathocles invade Cape Bon near Carthage, but with disappointing results.

309 - 308 BC

Bomilcar

Executed for rebellion against the council.

308 BC

Bomilcar attempts to overthrow the Council of Elders, unsuccessfully. For his pains he is crucified and the system of monarchy (in its loosest sense in relation to Carthage) is terminated. Carthage adopts a system by which the city state is governed as a form of oligarchic republic. Even so, it remains dominated at frequent intervals by powerful individuals, all of whom are generals.

Mago Barca

295 - 250 BC

Hamilcar

275 - 259 BC

Hannibal the Rhodian

264 - 241 BC

The First Punic War erupts between Rome and Carthage. It starts in Sicily and develops into a naval war in which the Romans learn how to fight at sea and eventually gain overall victory. Carthage loses Sardinia and the western section of Sicily. It also has to quell dissent from Utica and its neighbouring city of Hippocritae.

250 - 241 BC

Hanno IV (II) the Great

241 - 228 BC

Hamilcar Barca

237 BC

Hamilcar leads an expedition to expand Carthage's interests in Iberia and conquer the native peoples. Using Gadir as his base of operations, he pursues this policy until his death in battle. Hasdrubaal takes command, and pursues a policy of consolidation. He signs a treaty with Rome whereby both parties agree to maintain the River Ebro as their mutual border, with neither crossing to pursue gains in the other side's territory. However, this means that the Roman settlements in the north pose a potential threat.

228 - 221 BC

Hasdrubaal

Son. Assassinated.

221 - 195 BC

Hannibal Barca bar Hamilcar

Brother. Rome's greatest opponent. Died between 183-181 BC.

218 - 202 BC

The Second Punic War starts at Saguntum (near modern Valencia) in Hispania. Using Gadir as a base, Hannibal Barca sets out to attack Rome, leading his armies over the Alps into Italy. At first he wins great victories at Trasimeno and Cannae which all but destroys Roman military strength, but he is denied the reinforcements to pursue his victory by an opposing political faction back at home. The majority of Rome's Italian allies remain loyal and Rome is able to rebuild its strength. In 206 BC, Gadir is lost, and in 202 BC a force is landed in North Africa thanks to which, Hannibal is defeated by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama, ending the war.

During the war, Philip of Macedonia allies himself to Carthage. To avoid a possible reinforcement of Hannibal by Macedonia, Rome dispatches a force to tie down the Macedonians in the First Macedonian War. The war ends indecisively in 205 BC with the Treaty of Phoenicia. Even though it is only a minor conflict, it opens the way for later Roman military intervention in Greece.

210s - 206 BC

Mago Barca

Brother.

210s - 206 BC

Hasdrubaal Gisgo

201 BC

A peace treaty is dictated by Rome in which Carthage loses its trading cities in Hispania and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean, and much of its influence over the Numidian kingdoms in North Africa. The city's power is reduced to its immediate surroundings, and it owes a large indemnity to Rome. Hannibal is allowed to return to Carthage.

196 - 195 BC

Hannibal is still greatly admired as a Barcid military leader and is now elected shofet. He reforms the government in order to meet the heavy tribute payments demanded by Rome, but when his reforms are blocked by a financial official who is about to become a judge for life, Hannibal rallies the populace against the Tribunal of 104. He proposes a one year term for the 104 as part of a major civic overhaul. His political opponents flee to Rome and charge Hannibal with conspiracy by plotting war against Rome in league with Seleucid king Antiochus III. Although Scipio Africanus resists such manoeuvre, eventual Roman intervention forces Hannibal to flee Carthage, handing victory to the corrupt officials.

195 - 160 BC

Hasdrubaal Haedus

Pro-Roman faction.

183 - 181 BC

After living for a time in Bithynia, Hannibal is about to be handed over to the Romans. To escape, he commits suicide by taking poison. The exact year of his death is variously reported.

160 - 152 BC

Carthalo the Boetarch

Democratic faction.

152 - 148 BC

Hasdrubaal

148 - 146 BC

Hasdrubaal the Boetarch

149 - 146 BC

Carthage has recovered from its defeat in 202 BC and refuses a change in terms by Rome. The Third Punic War sees Rome's armies besieging Carthage which rejects negotiations. Eventually the city is destroyed and its citizens enslaved. The region is annexed to the growing overseas empire of Rome.

Roman Africa Proconsularis (Carthage)
40 BC - AD 439

Following the fall of Carthage, the local North African region was reorganised under Roman control. The city state of Utica, which became a Roman ally at the start of the Third Punic War, became the regional capital, charged with being Rome's key supplier of Punic trade. However, its main harbour soon proved problematical, suffering from an unrelenting build-up of silt washed down from the mountains, which eventually rendered it useless. Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage and it became the capital first of Colonia Junonia (44 BC) and then of the province of Africa Proconsularis.

146 - 122 BC

Carthage remains little more than a scattering of ruins. The region is governed from Utica.

122 BC

A Roman tribune by the name of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus founds a colonia on the site of Carthage. The project fails as general sentiment against the ancient enemy state is still too strong, and political manoeuvring against Gracchus blocks the scheme.

146 - 40 BC

Carthage is again abandoned and the region remains governed from Utica.

88 - 87 BC

Publius Sextilius

49 - 27 BC

A new Carthage, Colonia Junonia, is built on the site by Julius Caesar, and is completed after his death. Within five years the city is made the capital of the new Roman province of Africa Proconsularis.

Roman Carthage, when it was finally built over the ashes of the original city, was of course bigger and better and even more grand

27 BC

Caesar Augustus (Octavian) becomes a tribune and consular imperium in Rome and the empire is born. Africa Proconsularis gains its own governor

29 BC - AD 12

?

Name(s) unknown.

12 - 15

Lucius Nonius Asprenas

15 - 16

Lucius Ælius Lamia

16 - 17

Aulus Vibius Habitus

17 - 18

Marcus Furius Camillus

18 - 21

Lucius Apronius

21 - 23

Quintus Junius Blaesus

23 - 24

Publius Cornelius Dolabella

24 - 26

?

Name(s) unknown.

26 - 29

Caius Vivius Marsus

29 - 35

Marcus Junius Silanus

35 - 36

Caius Rubellius Blandus

36 - 37

Servius Cornelius Cethegus

37 - 38

?

Name(s) unknown.

38 - 39

Lucius Calpurnius Piso

39 - 40

?

Name(s) unknown.

40 - 41

Lucius Salvius Otho

41 - 43

Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus

43 - 44

?

Name(s) unknown.

44 - 46

Servius Sulpicius Galba

Emperor of Rome (68-69).

46 - 47

Marcus Servilius Nonianus

47 - 51

?

Name(s) unknown.

51 - 52

Lucius Tampius Flavianus

52 - 53

Titus Statilius Taurus

53 - 56

Marcus Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavinus

56 - 57

Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus Peticus

57 - 58

Gnaeus Hosidius Geta

58 - 59

Quintus Curtius Rufus

59 - 60

?

Name unknown.

60 - 61

Aulus Vitellius

61 - 62

Lucius Vitellius

62 - 63

Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus

64 - 68

Titus Flavius Vespasianus / Vespasian

Emperor of Rome (69-79).

68

?

Name unknown.

68

Caius Vipsanius Apronianus

68 - 121

Roman records of the names of governors breaks here, during the 'Year of the Four Emperors', the first time the imperial selection system breaks down, causing a period of great disturbance.

121

Lucius Minicius Natalis

121 - 139

?

Name(s) unknown.

139 - 140

[?] Minicius

Personal name unknown.

140 - 141

Titus Prifernius Paetus Rosianus Geminus

141 - 142

Sextus Julius Maior

142 - 143

Publius Tullius Varro

143 - ?

?

Name(s) unknown.

[?] Ennius Proculus

Personal name unknown.

? - 153

?

Name(s) unknown.

153 - c.154

Lucius Minicius Natalis Quadronius Verus

c.154 - c.155

Marcellus

Family names unknown.

c.155 - c.157

Severus

Family names unknown.

c.157 - 158

Lucius Hedius Rufus Lollianus Avitus

158 - 160

[?] Claudius Maximus

Personal name unknown.

160 - 161

[?] Egrilius Plarianus

Personal name unknown.

161 - 162

Titus Prifernius Paetus Rosianus Geminus

162 - 163

Quintus Voconius Saxa Fides

163 - 164

Sextus Cocceius Severianus Honorinus

164

Servius Cornelius Scipio Salvidienus Orfitus

164 - 165

Marcus Antonius Zeno

165 - ?

?

Name(s) unknown.

165

Roman records of the names of governors end here, although the post still exists and remains in place for the remaining life of the empire in North Africa. In 302 records begin again, although they are extremely patchy.

238

There is widespread discontent at the rule of Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax. This culminates in a revolt in the province of Africa. Gordian is sent along with his son to resolve the problem, and they enter Carthage only to be greeted with popular enthusiasm. Proclaimed emperor, Gordian I reigns for three weeks from Carthage, sharing power with his son, Gordian II. Both Gordians die when the governor of the neighbouring province of Numidia marches against them and kills Gordan II. His father commits suicide upon hearing the news.

240

Sabinianus follows Gordian's example and puts in a claim for the imperial throne from Africa. He is defeated by the Roman governor of Mauritania.

? - 262?

Memor

Northern African Roman official, perhaps in Egypt.

262

Memor prepares to declare himself Roman emperor in Africa but is killed by General Theodotus.

302

Roman records of the names of governors begin again, although they are extremely patchy.

c.302

Iulianus (Amnius Anicius Julianus?)

315 - 317

Petronius Probianus

317 - 318

Aconius Catullinus

337

Constantine II emerges from the unsettled period following his father's death as the senior Augustus, controlling Britain, Gaul, and Spain - the Gallic Provinces. Constans controls Africa, Italy and Rome, and the Illyrian provinces, while Constantius II holds Constantinople and most of the east.

338 - 339

Fabius Aconius Catullinus Philomathius

Vicarius (deputy).

372 - 375

The usurpation of Firmus takes place against the Comes Africae, Romanus, who is guilty of accepting bribes in return for protection, He had supported Firmus' illegitimate half-brother when he had tried to seize their late father's wealth. Firmus, who is the son of a Moorish prince and powerful Roman officer, has the support of native African tribes, He is undefeated against the emperor's magister militum, Theodosius, until he is betrayed by one of his own supporters. He chooses suicide over capture.

395

The province of Africa becomes part of the Western Empire.

396 - 397

Anicius Probinus

400 - 401

Gabinius Barbarus Pompeianus

415

Aurelius Anicius Symmachus

Praefectus urbi of Rome in 420.

416

A synod is held in Carthage (the Council of Carthage) in the Roman province of Africa which takes a firm line against the Pelagian 'heresy'. Pelagius (c.354-420/440) is a British ascetic who has allegedly denied the doctrine of original sin and he finds many supporters in Britain, especially amongst the educated classes.

439 - 534

Roman Carthage and Utica are conquered by the invading Vandali, who form their own powerful kingdom along the North African coast. The Western Roman empire is unable to recapture the vital province, and it takes until the sixth century before General Belisarius can be sent with an army by the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian to North Africa. In one campaigning season and two battles, the Vandali are conquered.

Byzantine Exarchate of Africa (Carthage)
AD 534 - 703

In response to the usurpation of the Vandal throne by Gelimer, the Byzantine General Belisarius is sent to North Africa with an army. In one campaigning season, the Vandali are conquered. North Africa remains firmly in Roman hands as the exarchate of Africa (a military district), until it is conquered by the Islamic empire. North Africa apparently provides the template for a general reorganisation of the Byzantine empire under Emperor Heraclius into military districts and themes.

534

Archelaus

Commander Apr-May.

534

Belisaurius

Military tribune, May-Sep.

535

General Belisarius proceeds from North Africa to capture sections of Italy, which he reorganises into the Byzantine exarchate of Ravenna.

Typical coins issued under Justin I and Justinian I between 518-565

534 - 536

Salomon

Prefect (from 535).

536

Symacchus

Prefect, Dec.

536 - 539

Germanus

Military tribune.

539 - 543

Salomon

Restored as Prefect.

544 - 545

Areobindus

545

Guntherius

545 - 546

Anathasius

546

Artabanus

Military tribune.

546 - 552

John Troglita

552 - 555

Paul

Prefect.

555 - 558

Boethius

558 - 562

John Troglita

Restored.

562 - 563

John Rogathinus

Military tribune.

563

Areobindus

Prefect.

563 - 565

Marcianus

Military tribune.

565

Thomas

Prefect.

565 - 569

Lucius Mappius

569 - 570

Theodore

Military tribune.

570 - 571

Theoctistus

571 - 574

Amabilis

574 - 578

?

Name unknown.

578

Thomas

Prefect.

578

Gennadius

Military tribune.

578 - 582

Vitalius

582 - 590

Theodore

Prefect.

590 - 591

John

591 - 594

Gennadius

594 - 598

Pantaleon

Exarch.

598 - 600

Gennadius

Restored.

600 - 602

Innocentius

Prefect.

602 - 611

Heraclius Crispus

Exarch. Father of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius.

611 - 614

?

Name unknown.

614 - 617

Caesarius

617 - 619

?

Name unknown.

619 - 627

Nicetas

627 - 633

Gregory the Patrician

Prefect.

633 - 641

Peter

Exarch.

641 - 648

Gregory the Patrician

Restored.

641

The exarchate of Africa is declared an independent state by Gregory the Patrician, as he throws off the authority of the Byzantine Emperor Constans II. He establishes Sufetula (modern Sbeïtla) as his capital.

647

Gregory's troops are severely defeated by the invading troops of the Islamic empire, and Gregory himself is killed in 648. The province appears to be occupied for perhaps a year or so before being abandoned in 649, allowing Byzantium to regain some level of control there. The country's interior remains firmly in the hands of the native Berbers, who repel any attempts to subdue them.

649

The Byzantine empire regains control of the province again until 667.

667

The Islamic empire snatches control of parts of the region, with the Walis of Ifriqiyya and the Maghreb launching raids further west.

686

An Islamic force led by Zoheir ibn Kais, Wali of Ifriqiyya and the Maghreb, defeats a joint army of Byzantines and Berbers commanded by Berber leader Khusalah on the Qairawan plain. The victors are not strong enough to follow up their victory.

The Byzantines found themselves unable to hold back the Arabic tide

695 - 698

The Wali of Ifriqiyya and the Maghreb, Hasan ibn al-Nu'man, captures Carthage in 695 and the Byzantine administration retreats, possibly to Caralis on Sardinia. Hasan advances into the Atlas Mountains and, taking advantage of his absence, a Byzantine fleet arrives to retake Carthage in 697. Within a year Hasan returns and defeats Emperor Tiberius III at the Battle of Carthage. Africa is abandoned to the Islamic empire, except for the small territory of Ceuta. It is the last time that Constantinople will rule the region for eight hundred and sixty-six years. Carthage is again destroyed, as is Utica, and is replaced by Tunis as the regional capital. The country itself will eventually bear the same name: Tunisia.

697 - 703

John

Governor. In Ceuta?

703? - 711

Julian / Urban / Ulbán / Bulian

In Ceuta? Possibly a vassal of Roderic of the Visigoths.

710 - 711

Ceuta, and the Pillars of Hercules, are apparently turned over to the Islamic empire by 'Count Julian', as the empire prepares its invasion of Visigothic Spain. Following the successful invasion, Julian is said to be granted the lands there that he desires, leaving Ceuta in Islamic hands.