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Britain (Albion)
 The
earliest traces of human habitation in the British Isles dates to about
700,000 years ago. These people were Homo Heidelbergensis, early humans who
formed small, migratory groups of hunter-gatherers. They entered a Britain
that was still firmly attached to the continent by land following the end of a
glacial period. As subsequent glacial periods ebbed and flowed, habitation faded
and was re-established (it failed an estimated total of seven times), and modern humans entered around 30,000 years ago. The
last recolonisation occurred from about 12,000 BC onwards, a little over
five thousand years before the
last vestiges of the land bridge were submerged beneath the newly formed North Sea
(the English Channel was formed much earlier). These people made up a culture with a relatively
peaceful communal society, part of the Early Mesolithic Period (8300-6500
BC) and the Late Mesolithic Period (6500-4000 BC).
EXTERNAL LINK:
Stonehenge
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c.10,000 BC |
As
the ice recedes northwards, the earliest hunter-gatherers to arrive in
Britain live in caves. Gorfe's Cave in Cheddar Gorge, Somerset, is one such
site for these people. It is a fairly dry place that makes a good camp, with
a good food supply from the land immediately outside. The Gorge channels
animals such as horse and red deer quite close to the caves, and setting up
ambushes to trap game as it goes past is relatively easy.
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c.9500 BC |
Until now a land bridge has connected Britain to
Ireland, roughly from the
south-eastern tip of the latter to south-western England. Trapped between
this land bridge and the ice sheet to the north, the Irish Sea is filled by
melt water that forms a vast lake. At this time, the land bridge is finally
submerged beneath the salt water of the Atlantic. Animals, including the
Giant Deer, and the hunter-gatherers who have followed them are now cut off.
The land bridge makes a few more brief appearances as short-term
fluctuations interfere with average sea levels before being swallowed up
permanently.
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This image may be somewhat fanciful, but it gives some
impression of how the shrinking land bridge between Ireland and
Britain might have looked
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c.8500 BC |
Evidence
of the earliest people to inhabit
Scotland is found by archaeologists in
2001. Discarded hazelnut shells and stone tools are amongst three thousand finds at
the site which point to a temporary encampment at Cramond, on the coast near
Edinburgh.
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c.6500 BC |
The
last vestiges of the Dogger Hills are submerged beneath the rising waters of
the North Sea. Hunter-gatherer communities have been living on the sweeping
plains of grass that had stretched from the east coast of Britain up to the
Shetland Islands and across to Scandinavia (an area known as Doggerland) since the end of the last ice
age, around 10,500 BC. They had lived in family groups in huts and hunted
animals such as deer and wild boar until slowly rising water levels
increasingly forced them to retreat to higher ground, land which today forms
Britain or Continental Europe. Britain is now incontrovertibly an island.
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c.4000 BC |
Scotland's
oldest-known farm is in use at a site near Blairgowrie in Perthshire in the
far north. The farm is close to a burial mound known as Cleave Dyke, which
dates from a similar period, and contains a large, roughly circular
enclosure which may be home to an extended family of about thirty people.
This point marks the end of the Mesolithic Period and the start of the
Neolithic, during which farming practices gradually erode the established
hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
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c.3800 BC |
Complex
techniques used in the construction of chambered tombs become evident at
this time on the Orkneys. At Maes Howe, a chambered tomb built around 3000
BC shows that builders devise a standard unit of length by taking detailed
readings from the movement of the sun and stars. The possibility also exists
that the skills developed here are exported across Britain and from there to
Egypt where
they are used to construct the first pyramids. Mummification is also
practised in Britain, with an example being found that is dated to 1000 BC.
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c.3590 BC |
A
Neolithic massacre takes place when fourteen people die violently, with
three of them probably being killed by arrows. The attack takes place at
Wayland's Smithy, near Uffington White Horse in Oxfordshire. It is possible
that they are killed in a rush for land or livestock, suggesting a period of
increasing social tension and upheaval.
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c.3100 BC |
The
site of Skara Brae on the Orkneys is built up and remains occupied until about
2500 BC. The group of six houses and a workshop is connected by a covered close.
All buildings except for the workshop are buried to the tops of the walls by midden,
a clay-like mixture of refuse consisting of ashes, shells, bones, sand and other
domestic detritus. It is this that protects the site until it is uncovered
by a severe storm in AD 1850.
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The rediscovery of Skara Brae in 1850 uncovered a wealth of data
on Neolithic dwellings
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c.2950 - 2900 BC |
Phase I of Stonehenge is assembled, comprising a circular bank, ditch, and
counterscarp bank of about a hundred metres (330 feet) in diameter. Just
inside the earth bank is a circle of the fifty-six Aubrey holes that hold
wooden posts. |
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c.2900 - 2400 BC |
Changes take place for Phase II of Stonehenge. For the next five hundred
years, post holes indicate timber settings at the centre of the monument and
at the north-eastern entrance. The Aubrey holes no longer hold posts but are
partially filled, some with cremation deposits added to the fill. The
numerous post holes indicate timber structures but no clear patterns or
configurations are discernible that can suggest their shape, form, or
function. |
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Beaker Culture (Britain)
The Beaker folk (or Beaker culture) arrived in Britain around 2700-2500 BC,
intermingling fairly peacefully with the existing Neolithic culture and
adopting its henges. The Beaker folk brought new burial practices with them
so that Neolithic long barrows or cairns were replaced by smaller barrows or
tumuli. They also brought new metalworking techniques with them, in copper
and gold, heralding the start of the Chalcolithic Age. They came from a society
that stretched across Europe (covering all of Iberia, most of Germany, and
northern and southern France excluding the Central Massif), and they introduced
a patriarchal society in which the individual warrior-chieftain became the most
important and powerful figure. They gained their name, which is sometimes given
as Bell Beaker Folk, through their use of a large number of drinking cups called
beakers. Burials with these pots alongside the dead have been used by archaeologists
to chart the growth and expansion of the Beaker folk.
Probably not an invasion of new people, the Beaker folk most likely
represented the influx of a new ruling elite in much the same way as later
waves of Celtic arrivals would dominate the country.
These people were farmers and archers, wearing stone wrist guards to protect
their arms from the sting of the bowstring. They introduced the roundhouse,
which echoed in shape both the henges and barrow mounds, made their own,
distinctive, pottery, and were eventually responsible for producing the
first woven garments in Britain. They also appear to have introduced the
first known alcoholic drink, a form of honey-based mead.
It was this Beaker Culture that was disrupted in the twelfth century BC, possibly
by the arrival of the first wave Celtic settlers
during a period of intense disruption that took place as far afield as the Middle
East, where the collapse of the
Hittite empire was the first major act of a century of turmoil.
EXTERNAL LINK:
Stonehenge
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c.2600 - 2500 BC |
With the influx of the Beaker folk adding fresh impetus to the work, the
construction of Phase III of Stonehenge is begun at this time and continues
until around 1600 BC. Aligned with the sunset of the
winter solstice, the monument undergoes a complicated sequence of settings
of large stones. This starts with a series of Bluestones placed in the Q and
R Holes (Sub-Phase 3i). These are subsequently dismantled and a circle of
sarsens and a horseshoe-shaped arrangement of Trilithons is erected
(Sub-Phase 3ii). The Sarsen Circle is comprised of thirty upright sandstone
blocks (only seventeen now remain standing). They support sarsen lintels
forming a continuous circle around the top, with each sarsen probably being
brought to the site from the Marlborough Downs, about thirty kilometres to
the north. |
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A huge settlement,
one of the largest seen in Britain, is used by the people who build Stonehenge.
Its remains are discovered by archaeologists in 2006. The site at Durrington
Walls seems to be occupied seasonally, being used for ritual feasting and
funeral ceremonies. Neolithic people from all over the region are probably
drawn here, enjoying massive feasts in the midwinter, where prodigious
quantities of food are consumed. The bones are then tossed onto the floors
of the houses to be unearthed 4600 years later. Durrington also has its own
henge made of wood, which is strikingly similar in layout to Stonehenge but
which aligns to the sunrise of the winter solstice.
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The most impressive stages in the construction of Stonehenge
took place between 2600-2500 BC, but work continued for another
millennium
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c.2550 - 1600 BC |
The final stages of the construction and use of Stonehenge, Phase III
Sub-Phase 3vi, comprises two circles, one inside the other, known as the Y
and Z Holes. They are dug for the placement of stones but are never filled.
Probably also dating to Phase III are the four Station Stones. These sarsen
stones stand just inside the bank on more or less the same line as the
Aubrey Holes. Also assigned to Phase III are Stoneholes D and E and the
recumbent sarsen known as the Slaughter Stone. The earthwork known as the
Avenue is probably laid at this time, extending north-east from the break in
the bank-and-ditch. Located further along the Avenue is the so-called Heel
Stone (Stone 96). |
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Wessex Culture (Britain)
The term 'Wessex Culture' was first termed in 1938, before British
prehistory had been fully understood and properly categorised. It mainly
concentrated on central and southern Britain of the early Bronze Age, and it
can be seen today as a sub-category of the
Beaker Culture, as the Stone Age ended in favour of the Bronze Age.
Wessex culture itself can be broken down into two phases, the first in
2000-1650 BC and the second in 1650-1400 BC.
Related to the Hilversum culture of
Belgium,
the central
Netherlands, and northern
France, the
period saw fresh arrivals of Beaker Folk from these regions (the same
pattern of successive waves of immigration by the same people would later be
repeated by the Celts). They buried their dead in barrows, although
cremation was later practised, with the remains being placed in the same
barrows. A rich assortment of grave goods was added to the burials, some of
which were imported from very good trading contacts on the continent. Those
links reached as far afield as
Latvia and
Lithuania
(amber), and
Mycenaean Greece (beads).
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c.2000 BC |
The beginning of the Bronze Age in Britain can be placed around this point
in time. Although not certain, it is generally thought that the new bronze
tools and weapons identified with this age are introduced from Continental
Europe. The skulls recovered from burial sites from the Bronze Age are
different in shape to Stone Age skulls. This would suggest that new ideas
and new blood are brought over from the continent. This is the start of
Wessex Culture I. |
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c.1650 BC |
Wessex Culture II sees the construction of Stonehenge ended, with the last
work taking place around 1600 BC (the Y and Z Holes). While a wide range of
artefacts from later periods are found at the site, it is still unknown if
the monument remains in use or is just an object of amazement for later
generations wondering at this massive stone construction.
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Stonehenge was probably abandoned in the seventeenth century BC
as an anachronism that was no longer part of the lives of the
people
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Prydein (Prettania / Britannia / Britain) / High Kings
of Britain
The
first wave of Celtic settlers in Britain could have arrived in the late
Bronze Age period, between 1500 BC at the earliest to around 1000 BC. These
early Celtic arrivals were later the focus of what may have been a long-established
tradition of kingship that was claimed by the post-Roman Celtic peoples of
Britain. Geoffrey of Monmouth in his History of the Kings of Britain,
expanded on work by Nennius and attempted to list all of the kings of Britain
reigning between the arrival of Brutus and the Britons (a possible, archaeology-supported,
early influx of Continental Celts) in circa 1100 BC up to AD 689 and the end of
Gwynedd's attempts to regain the territory
lost to the Anglo-Saxons. Nominal rulers of the British Celtic tribes (starting initially
in the south and east of Britain and working northwards), they were probably rulers of
their own tribal groups and held at least theoretical high-kingship over the rest. They
usually only exercised real authority in this role in times of emergency, such as at the
landings of Julius Caesar in 55 and 54 BC.
 Pre-Roman, heroic age Celtic kingdoms almost always formed the basis of the ancestral heritage of
later post-Roman Celtic kings. Although largely legendary until the Roman and
post-Roman periods, considering the importance that the
Indo-European Celtic warrior class placed on
lineage, added to the tradition of being able to recite one's ancestors, these names may
well reflect an element of truth. But, because the Iron Age Celts left no written
records, and the post-Roman Britons probably lost a large amount of the records they
possessed after the Adventus Saxonum, very little of this can ever be
proved. The dates shown here are rough approximations for the legendary
period (lilac-backed), and are calculated back from known high kings. They
should not be taken as being historically accurate, but they do form the
framework for the known facts about the Celtic settlement of Britain.
Some later post-Roman high kings, accepted as such in other references, are not
on Geoffrey's list, and are shown here in red text.
The listing of most of these British monarchs was derived by the late Lewis Thorpe
PhD from the 1966 translation of The History of the Kings of Britain (1982
Edition). In general, events given below with dates are historical fact or general
estimates worked out from archaeological evidence, while events without
dates relate to traditional, legendary storytelling.
(Additional information by Mick Baker and Edward Dawson, and taken from The Oxford History of England: Roman
Britain, Peter Salway.) |
fl c.1115 BC |
Brutus |
Led Britons to Lloegr (roughly modern
England). Reigned 23 yrs. |
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The legendary traditions
of the Britons are later written down by Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth,
largely in story form and involving much invention, either by the writers
themselves or, more probably, by a much more ancient bardic tradition in an
attempt to explain the origin of the name of Prydein/Britain and lend the
Britons a greater heritage by linking them to
Troy.
Those traditions begin with Brutus and his followers landing at the mouth of
the River Dart (in modern Devon). Brutus is the son of Silvius of the
Latin
kings of
Italy, while his fellow leader, Corineus, and all his followers are
the descendants of Trojan refugees. The newcomers fight off the 'giants' who
occupy the island and Brutus gives all of the south-west peninsula to Corineus
(westwards from a line between the Severn and Wight, meaning all of the fifth
century AD kingdom of
Dumnonia).
Brutus founds a city on the banks of the Thames which he names New Troy,
'that is, Trinovantum' (thereby linking the later tribe of the
Trinovantes to the region
that is under their control in the first century BC). It is here that the
'Crown of the Island' is worn, in the land that had been called Albion but
is now named Britain after Brutus himself. He divides the land between his
three sons. Albanactus (Albanac) gains Albany (Scotland), and
Kamber gains Cambria (Wales). The eldest, Locrinus, gains Lloegr
(Logris or Loegria, analogous to
England south of the Humber and
remarkably similar to the civilian-controlled areas of
Roman
Britain, south and east of
the military zones of Wales and the north, most clearly shown on the
accompanying maps in the AD 70-79 period).
Coincidentally perhaps, archaeologists have discovered evidence of a fairly
significant disruption in cultural practices in the twelfth century BC, one
that may indicate a migration into Britain, or perhaps even an invasion.
This is precisely the period in which Brutus and his people arrive, with the
legendary characters shown here probably representing the first arrival in
Britain of Celto-Ligurian Bronze Age peoples. The native 'giants' could
easily refer to hard-fighting Beaker Culture natives (although this invasion
theory is no longer as popular as previously, being replaced by the idea of
small scale migrations of a new ruling elite which simply 'tops-up' the
country's population).
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Locrinus |
Son. High King of Britain. Reigned 10 years. Killed in battle. |
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Albanactus / Albanac |
Brother. King of Albany (Scotland).
Killed in battle. |
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Kamber |
Brother. King of Cambria (Wales). |
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According to legend, 'foreign people' land in Britain to
the north of the River Humber. They ravage the land and Albanactus is
impetuous enough to engage them in battle without requesting reinforcements
from his brothers. He is slain, and his death is avenged with great
slaughter of the invaders on the banks of the Humber.
Locrinus is engaged to Vennolandua, daughter of Corineus, but he falls in
love with Estrildis, concubine of the invaders' now-dead leader. Keeping his
concubine a secret from his new wife leads to civil war between Locrinus and
Vennolandua. In her anger, she dons full armour and becomes the first true
warrior queen of the British. The two armies meet and Locrinus is slain.
Vennolandua has Estrildis and her daughter, Savren, thrown into the Severn,
and rules as high queen until her son is of age to succeed her. |
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Queen Gwendolen |
Widow of Locrinus. Ruled 15 years until Maddan came of age. |
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Maddan |
Son. Reigned 40 years. |
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c.1035 BC |
The Phoenicians
are creating trading posts along the North African coast, such as
Carthage and
Utica, in
southern
Italy, in the Mediterranean, such as Kition on
Cyprus,
and in southern
Spain, such
as Gadir and Tarshish.
Merchants are also known to trade with the occupants of the Land's End region of
Britain, and general opinion is that these traders are Phoenicians, although
there is no surviving proof.
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The Celts arrived in Cornwall at much the same time as seafaring
merchants were trading there, probably for the tin deposits in
the region
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Mempricius |
Son. A tyrant. Reigned 20 years. Killed by wolves. |
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Tradition maintains that Mempricius and his brother, Malin,
quarrel over who should succeed the peaceful forty year reign of their
father. Through trickery, Malin is murdered by Mempricius, who goes on to
rule as a tyrant over the whole island. He murders anyone who might provide
competition, including members of his own family, and even his own wife
deserts him. In the end, he is brought down not by his suffering subjects
but by wolves who attack him when he becomes separated from his companions
on a hunt.
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fl c.1006 BC |
Ebraucus |
Son. Reigned 39 years. Eponymous founder of
Ebrauc. |
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c.1000 BC |
Mummification
is being practised in the Outer Hebrides. In 2003, archaeologists discover
the mummified remains of four people below a Bronze Age roundhouse in
South Uist. It is believed that the process had begun at the same time
as in Egypt
and it may be linked to the complex chambered tombs that had
been constructed in the area around 3800 BC.
Also around this time, plus or minus a century or so, the Hekla 3 volcano on
Iceland erupts. It is one of the most severe eruptions of the past 12,000
years (the Holocene era) and its effects are felt almost immediately in Britain.
The temperature drops significantly, according to tree-ring evidence, and
the marginal land that had first been cleared and farmed by the
Beaker
Culture is now abandoned. One example of this is Dartmoor, where abandoned
farmland and farm housing is soon covered by formations of peat. Warfare and
banditry probably sweeps the country as food stocks fall drastically. |
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Brutus Greenshield |
Son. Reigned 12 years. |
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fl c.950 BC |
Leil |
Son. Reigned 25 years. Eponymous founder of Caer Leil
(Carlisle). |
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Rud Hud Hudibras |
Son. Reigned 39 years. |
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Bladud |
Son. Reigned 20 years. Founder of Aquae Sulis (Caer
Baddan). |
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Leir |
Son. Reigned 60 years. Shakespeare's 'King Lear'. |
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Leir is the subject of William Shakespeare's play, 'King
Lear', and the Shakespearian spellings of his daughters' names are shown
after the more original Celtic versions below. Leir is also the traditional
founder of Caer Leir (or Caer Lerion, modern Leicester).
Goronilla and Riganna are gifted Albany and Cornwall respectively when Leir
decides to divide his kingdom amongst his offspring (as is the custom, but
this time before his death). Cordaella is banished from Britain for not praising
her father when asked. She seeks refuge with her foster parents, Maglocun and his
wife, and is brought to King Aganippus in an unidentified part of Gaul. Cordaella
and Aganippus are soon married. Goronilla gains Logris while Riganna gains
Cambria, both of which should have gone to their youngest sister. |
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Queen Goronilla / Goneril |
Daughter. Queen of Logris & Albany (Scotland).
Killed in battle. |
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Queen Riganna / Regan |
Sister. Queen of
Cornwall & Cambria
(Wales). Killed in battle. |
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Leir has withdrawn from public life, but his attempts to
maintain his household and warband are frustrated by Goronilla and Riganna.
His status is whittled away by the pair until he has nothing other than the
lowliest of bards. He goes to Gaul, to 'the place where Aganippus was king'
(presumably a specific Gaulish tribe - he is sometimes referred to as one of
the twelve kings that ruled Gallia), and seeks forgiveness from Cordaella.
With the pair warmly reunited, they raise an army and defeat Goronilla and
Riganna in battle. Leir is restored to his throne and Cordaella succeeds
him. |
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Leir |
Restored. Reigned 3 or 10 years. |
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Queen
Cordaella / Cordelia |
Youngest daughter. High Queen. Reigned 5 years. |
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fl c.750 BC |
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Marganus |
Nephew. Son of Goronilla & Maglaurus. Duke of Albany (Scotland). |
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fl c.750 BC |
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Cuneglasus
/ Cunedagius |
Cousin. Son of Riganna & Henwinus. Duke of
Cornwall. |
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After reigning for five years, Cordaella faces rebellion
by her two nephews. Marganus of Albany (Scotland)
and Cuneglasus of
Cornwall capture
her and imprison her. Grieving for the loss of her kingdom and widowed since
shortly after becoming high queen, she kills herself. Cuneglasus becomes
king of Loegria, Marganus of Albany. Two years later, Marganus invades
Loegria and is put to flight and then killed by Cuneglasus in Cambria (Wales).
Cuneglasus is now undisputed high king. |
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fl c.750 BC |
Cuneglasus
/ Cunedagius |
Succeeded Cordaella. Reigned
33 yrs. |
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c.750 BC |
Cuneglasus is dated by Geoffrey of Monmouth to the period
in which Romulus founds the city of
Rome and
the prophet Isaiah ministers to the
Israelites. The two versions of his name are curious, as they mean
different things. Cuneglasus literally means 'blue dog' ('cuno-' meaning dog and 'glasus'
meaning blue). Cunedagius means 'the hound (or dog) of [the god] Dadga'. A
possibility is that the Britons combine 'cune'/'cuno' (dog) with 'maglos',
to produce 'cune(ma)glas' as a pun. The modern
Welsh are somewhat
famous for clever nicknames, a habit they almost certainly inherited from
their British forebears.
This also the period in which the Iron Age begins to arrive
in Britain, introduced along with the second wave of Celtic immigrants. Over
the next 250 years, soft bronze swords are gradually replaced by tough iron ones. Celtic
language spreads throughout the country. |
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Rivallo |
Son of Cuneglasus. No reignal length given. |
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Gurgastius
/ Gurgustius |
Son. No reignal length given. |
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The relationship of the next high king, Sisillius is not
given, suggesting that the succession breaks down around this time. Curiously,
this is not mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth as he works through the list of
kings, making it more likely that some kind of oral tradition is being remembered
for which the details in this case have been lost. Only the names and their
relationships to their predecessors survive. The limited number of rulers for
this period of almost four hundred years, between about 750 BC and 387 BC, could
also meant that many names have been lost altogether. The swings between two
branches of the royal house holding the high kingship support the idea of a
period of civil war. |
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Sisillius
(I) |
Son. |
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Jago |
Nephew of Gurgastius. |
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Kimarcus |
Son of Sisillius. |
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Corodubic / Gorboduc |
Son. m Judon. Died senile, fostering civil war between his
sons. |
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c.550 BC |
Inhabitants
of the Outer Hebrides could be farming animals for milk by this time. In
2000, traces of cow's milk in cooking pots are discovered by archaeologists
at the Iron Age settlement of Cladh Hallan, South Uist, on the Western
Isles. Bones of calves are also found at the site, suggesting that the
Iron Age farmers are slaughtering the young animals to maintain milk production.
Further bones, of people, discovered underneath dwellings show that the
practice of mummification continues in the region.
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The bodies of ancestors were submerged in peat bogs
to mummify them, before being laid to rest beneath the dwelling
of their relatives, laying there during several hundreds of
years of occupation before the site was finally abandoned around
400 BC
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Ferrex and Porrex
(I) |
Sons. |
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According to legend, as their father descends into senility Ferrex and Porrex
become engaged in a civil war, and Britain is fractured. Corodubic dies as the
fighting begins. Ferrex flees to Gaul and brings a Gaulish army back with him,
but this is destroyed by Porrex and Ferrex dies in battle. In her grief, their
mother, Judon, kills Porrex and the line of descent is broken. A long period
of civil war follows and five (initially) unnamed kings
subsequently rule areas of the country with no one claiming the title of
high king.
The legendary Logris is generally analogous to
England south of the Humber and
on a rough map looks remarkably similar in territory to the civilian-controlled areas of
Roman
Britain, south and east of
the military zones of Wales and
the north. |
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Pinner |
King of Logris (equal to civilian-controlled
Roman 'England'). |
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Staterius |
King of Albany (Scotland). |
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Rudaucus |
King of Cambria (Wales). |
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Cloten |
King of
Cornwall (Dumnonia). |
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Dunvallo Molmutius |
Son. King of
Cornwall (Dumnonia). |
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The period of civil war comes to a head with the rise of Dunvallo Molmutius.
He attacks Pinner and kills him in battle. Rudaucus and Staterius form an
alliance against him but again, both are defeated in one huge pitched battle
and are killed. Geoffrey of Monmouth mentions five kings of Britain during
the civil war period, and Dunvallo is not one of them, but the name of this
other king has been lost.
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Dunvallo Molmutius
/ Dyfnwal Moelmut |
Gained high kingship. A representation of a later historical king. |
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Claimed by tradition as one of the 'Three Pillars of the Island of the
Mighty', Dunvallo Molmutius appears to have two possible sources for his
origins. One is as Dumnovellaunos of the
Trinovantes at the end of
the first century BC, while the other is as Dyfnwal Moelmud (the Bald
and Silent), king of
Bernaccia in the mid-fifth century AD. In this mythical list, his son is
Brennius, who appears (in part at least) to be Bran Hen of Bernaccia. The
legendary Dunvallo is also nicknamed 'the Lawgiver' because he forms the
laws that later prevail throughout Britain.
In
the tale by Nennius, following Dunvallo's sudden death the highly
competitive Brennius and Belinus divide Britain between them (with
Brennius notably taking the lands north of the Humber, precisely where
Bernaccia would later be located). The first druids to enter the island are
invited so that they can decide which of the brothers will be high king, and
the two are eventually reconciled, although not without five years of peace
and a great deal of further warfare. During his period of exile, Brennius
also encounters King Guichthlac or Ginchtalacus of the Dacians or
Danes
respectively, King Elsingius of the Norwegians, and Seginus or Segnius of
the Allobroges.
|
|
fl c.387 BC |
Belinus |
Son. King of Logris. 'Duke of
Cornwall'. Cuncar
of Bernaccia? |
|
fl c.387 BC |
|
Brennius |
Brother. King of Albany & Cambria. Bran Hen of
Bernaccia? |
|
Gurguit Barbtruc |
Son of Belinus. |
|
Thanks
to the generosity of Gurguit Barbtruc, Partholoim or Partholomus is the leader of the first settlement in
Ireland after the
Mesopotamian Great Flood. Geoffrey of Monmouth mentions him in
conjunction with Gurguit Barbtruc, probably
finding him in the Historia Britonum (Chapter 13), the ninth century
Welsh Latin historical compilation put together by Nennius. |
|
Guithelin |
Son. |
|
Queen Marcia |
Widow, and regent for her young son, who was aged 7. |
|
Sisillius
(II) |
Son. Reigned after his mother's
death. |
c.350 BC |
It is estimated that the second wave of Celtic migrants reaches western
Britain (modern Wales) around this time, replacing or absorbing the previous
Celto-Ligurian peoples of the Bronze Age. These second wave settlers include the
Ordovices, as well as the
predecessors of the Gangani and
Deceangli, an unknown and unnamed neighbouring people who may bear some
relation to the Ordovices.
|
|
Kinarius |
Son. |
|
Danius |
Brother. |
c.325 BC |
Pytheas of Massalia, a Greek geographer and explorer undertakes a voyage of
exploration around north-west Europe. During his trip he visits Britain,
which he names Pretania or Pritannia (a name which covers all of the islands
and Ireland), and travels extensively, making notes
of what he sees, and also providing what may be the earliest written report
of Stonehenge. He names the promontory of Kantion (land of the
Cantii), the promontory of
Belerion (later the land of the Cornovii),
and Orkas (the Orkneys). Belerion is home to a civilised people who are
especially hospitable to strangers, apparently due to their dealings with
foreign merchants who are involved in the tin trade.
|
|
Morvidus |
Son. A cruel ruler. |
|
Gorbonianus |
Son. |
|
Archgallo |
Brother. Outraged nobles who rose in rebellion and deposed
him. |
c.300 BC |
Judging by burial practises in the region, the
Parisi probably occupy their
territory by this date. Whether they are related to the Parisii tribe in
Gaul is unknown, but they seem to be a late arrival in the migration of
those Celtic tribes which are dominant by the first century AD.
|
|
Elidurus
(the Dutiful) |
Brother. Reigned 5 years. |
|
Tradition paints this as an unsettled period, one which sees the five sons
of Morvidus constantly jostling for control of the country. The throne
changes hands no less than seven times during their lifetimes with Elidurus
occupying it three times.
|
|
Archgallo |
Restored by Elidurus. Reigned well for 10 years. |
|
Elidurus |
Succeeded his brother, but defeated and deposed. |
|
Ingenius |
Brother. King of Logris & Kambria. Reigned 7 years. |
|
|
Peredurus |
Brother. King of Albany. |
|
Peredurus |
Succeeded to Logris as a benign king. Died. |
|
Elidurus |
Restored for a second time. |
|
? |
Son of Gorbonianus. Name not recorded (and not even
invented). |
|
Marganus
(II) |
Son of Archgallo. |
|
Enniaunus |
Brother. Reigned 6 years. Deposed
as a tyrant. |
|
Idvallo |
Son of Ingenius. |
|
Runo |
Son of Peredurus. |
|
Gerennus |
Son of Elidurus. |
|
Catellus |
Son. |
|
In the traditional list of high kings given by Geoffrey of
Monmouth, the father-to-son succession largely appears to fail at this
point, or whatever records he might be working from have not recorded the
information.
|
|
Millus |
|
|
Porrex
(II) |
|
|
Cherin |
|
mid-200s BC |
A large number of Gallo-Belgic A coins are to be
found in southern Britain at this time or soon afterwards. This suggests
heavy trade with the Ambiani tribe in northern Gaul, but also the
probability that Ambiani have settled in Hampshire, possible as the earliest
representatives of the tribe of the
Belgae. The Suessiones may be
another Belgic tribe that is settling heavily in Britain from this time.
 |
|
A gold Gallo-Belgic quarter stater of the C-type, dated between
80-60 BC
|
|
|
|
This arrival of the third wave of Celtic settlers in the country probably
sees them become dominant over previous, second wave arrivals in some parts
(most especially with the Cantii). In other areas, the previous occupants
are probably forced to migrate further west. The
Cornovii tribe (to be found
in the Midlands by the first century AD), may be one such tribe. There are
also Cornovii to be found in Cornwall by the first century AD and Cornavii
in Pictland by the second century AD. If there is any connection between
these three, could it be due to a fracturing of the tribe as it is pushed
out of its established territory? |
|
Fulgenius |
Son. |
|
Edadus |
Brother. |
|
Andragius |
Brother. |
|
Urianus |
Son. |
|
Eliud |
|
|
Cledaucus |
|
|
Clotenus |
|
|
Gurgintius |
|
|
Merianus |
|
|
Bledudo |
|
|
Cap |
|
|
Oenus |
|
|
Sisillius (III) |
|
|
Beldgabred |
A great musician. |
|
Archmail |
Brother. |
|
Eldol |
|
|
Redon |
|
|
Redechius |
|
|
Samuil Penessil |
A representation of a later semi-historical king. |
|
Samuil Penessil is an addition to whatever traditional
list of kings later exists in the British Celtic oral tradition. He is Sawyl Penuchel,
king of the South Pennines in
the late sixth century. By Geoffrey of Monmouth he is split into two
individual kings, Samuil and Penessil. Clearly Geoffrey doesn't know who he
is. |
|
Pir |
|
|
Capoir |
|
|
Digueillus |
Son. |
113 - 105 BC |
A large-scale migration of
Teutones and
Cimbri from
their homeland in what later becomes central and northern
Denmark
is triggered by deteriorating living conditions in their homeland. The chaos
caused by the passage of this mass wandering through western Europe is
probably the spark that causes migrations of Belgic peoples from
the Netherlands and northern Gaul into Britain. |
fl c.110 BC |
Heli / Beli Mawr (the Great) |
Son. Reigned for 40 yrs. m Don ferch Mathonwy. |
|
Beli Mawr is
claimed as the founder of the Deisi, later rulers of the kingdom of
Dyfed, and also of the
Silures. His
eldest son, Aballac, is claimed as the ancestor of Coel Hen, of the fourth
century 'Kingdom of Northern Britain' which is based at
Ebruac.
His second child, daughter Lweriadd, marries Llyr
Lleddiarth, who is claimed as the founder of
Gwent. Another of his children as
claimed by tradition is Cassivellaunus, the mid-first century BC high king
who fights against Julius Caesar's expeditions. |
c.90 - 60 BC |
Gallo-Belgic C coins can be found in Britain which are tentatively identified
with Diviciacus of the Suessiones. Finds are concentrated amongst the
Cantii, but
can be found as far west as the Sussex coast, in the territory of the
Regninses, and up to the Wash, covering the
Catuvellauni,
Trinovantes, and
Iceni. |
fl c.80 BC |
Lludd Llaw Ereint (the Silver-Handed) |
Third
child. Began the line of Cunedda Wledig of Gwynedd. |
|
|
Lud,
or Lludd Llaw Ereint,
is claimed as the ancestor of Cunedda Wledig, the chieftain of the
Venicones
tribe, in Fife in
Pictland,
who is moved by Britain's late fourth century AD central administration to
northern Wales to fight off the wave of
Irish
raiders there (or who invades North Wales during a time of weakness in
Britain's administration). Lludd himself is claimed as the rebuilder of the
city of Trinovantum, which is renamed Lludd's Dun, or London, in his honour.
Following his death he is buried at Porthlud (modern Ludgate in the City of
London). His two sons, Androgeus and Tenvantius, are still young and another
son, Amalach or Afallach is claimed as the founder of the later ruling
families of both Powys and
Gwynedd, so Lludd's brother, Cassivellaunus,
gains the high kingship. |
c.60 -
30 BC |
Cassivellaunus |
'Brother'. King of the
Catuvellauni.
Fought Julius Caesar. |
|
|
Androgeus |
Son of Lludd. In reality Mandubracius of the
Trinovantes. |
|
|
Tenvantius |
Brother. King of
Cornwall. Later
High King Bran. |
|
|
Cridous |
King of Albany. |
|
|
Gueithaet |
King of Venedotia. |
|
|
Brittahel |
King of Demetia. |
c.60 - 50 BC |
Gallo-Belgic F coins are also found in many coastal areas of Britain,
introducing the triple-tailed horse design on the reverse that becomes
widespread over the next few decades. The existence of so many coins that
are linked to the Suessiones, or which ape their design, suggests to
scholars that the Suessiones form a considerable portion of the Belgic
peoples who migrate into Britain from the second century BC. |
|
c.56 BC |
The fleet of
Roman
general Julius Caesar defeats the Veneti off the coast of what becomes known as
Armorica.
Elements of the tribe may flee to Britain
and Ireland
where they form two tribes of Venicones, one in what becomes
Pictland
and the other in County Donegal, where both are attested by Ptolemy by AD 140. |
55 - 54 BC |
Led by Cassivellaunus, several British tribes are involved in the fight
against the unwanted
Roman
expeditions of Julius Caesar which enter the country from the Kent coast.
These tribes include the
Atrebates,
Belgae,
Cantii,
Catuvellauni, and
Trinovantes, while others
surrender to the invader, namely the
Ancalites,
Bibroci,
Cassi,
Cenimagni, and Segontiaci.
Cassivellaunus commands around 4,000 chariots, something that has not been
seen for a long time on the Continent, and the sight appals the Romans. Caesar
himself admires the courage of the Britons.
 |
|
John Deare's late eighteenth century sculpture shows Julius
Caesar and his troops on their beachhead in Kent, desperately
fighting off the Britons
|
|
|
|
Tradition has Cassivellaunus fighting Caesar alongside the
representatives of the peoples of Britain,
Androgeus of the
Trinovantes,
Tenvantius (the young Bran Fendigaid) of
Cornwall,
Cridous of Albany,
Gueithaet of Venedotia, and
Brittahel of Demetia, alongside
Nennius, brother of the high king. Nennius dies of his wounds fifteen days
after the battle. |
|
c.20 BC |
Appearing
in several of the Welsh Triads, Bran Fendigaid, Bran the Blessed, is the son
of Lir (or Llŷr in later Welsh)
who comes from beyond the waves, from the Living Land. Lir dwells with
Penardin White Throat (or Penarddun) in her brother's house (a well-known
Celtic custom of temporary marriage where no bride fee is paid), her brother
being the otherwise unnamed high king. She is named by the Mabinogion as a
daughter of Beli Mawr, which would make her brother Lludd Llaw Ereint,
although the genealogy is confused (unusual, if this story is a complete
fabrication and not based on partially-remembered events). Bran's younger
siblings by Lir are Manadan (or Manawydan) and Branwen, and he has a
half-brother born after Lir's return to the Living Lands in the form of
Emnissien (or Efnysien). |
fl c.20 BC |
Bran Fendigaid (the Blessed) / Tenvantius |
Son of Lludd.
King of Ewyas / the
Silures. |
|
|
Bran becomes high king and is
approached by Matholug (or Matholwch), king of
Ireland, who asks for
Branwen's hand in marriage. Branwen is taken back to Ireland where she gives
birth to a son, Gwern. An insult
paid to Matholug by the troubled Emnissien plays on his mind so, at the
urging of his advisors, Branwen is consigned to captivity in his kitchens.
When Bran hears of this, he leads a mighty host which defeats the Irish
king. Despite a truce, further fighting erupts, devastating both sides and
resulting in the deaths of Bran, Emnissien, Gwern, Matholug and, eventually,
Branwen. Only Manadan survives with a few followers to bring Bran's sacred
head back to Britain to bury it in the White Mount looking down the Thames
to the sea. While the head remains in place, Britain will be protected from
invasion from across the sea. |
c.AD 1 - 41 |
Cunobelinus / Cunobelin / Cymbeline |
King of the
Catuvellauni.
Acknowledged by
Rome. |
41 - 43 |
Togodumnus |
King of the
Catuvellauni. Killed in
battle or died of his wounds. |
43 - 51 |
Caratacus / Guiderius |
King of the
Catuvellauni. Eventually
seized and taken to
Rome. |
43 |
The might of imperial
Rome
invades Britain and quickly starts to conquer individual kingdoms. The
Cantii and
Trinovantes are amongst
the first to fall, while the northern
Dobunni appear to surrender.
The first Roman governor leads the campaign. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Roman
Empire Britannia
From AD 43 to around AD 79 the
Romans
invaded and conquered the south and east of Britain, although at times their
hold on the island appeared tenuous. From there they extended their
conquests to cover modern Wales and the north,
areas in which their hold would appear even more tenuous, especially in
modern Scotland. Aulus Plautius
was appointed by Rome as the first governor of the island in AD 43, and it
was he who commanded the legions and their conquests.
For
the entire period of the Roman occupation of Britain, tradition still
dictates that high kings held some form of power or influence in the
country. Most of this tradition was written down by Nennius and Geoffrey of
Monmouth, and most of it is very easy to dismiss. However, the concept of a
high king seems to have re-emerged in the fifth century AD, and perhaps for
some time after the initial Roman conquest it also persisted, apparently
with the Silures having
predominance over the other conquered British tribes (if Nennius et al
are to be believed at all). Since the Silures fought so hard against Rome,
perhaps they had earned the right to proffer titular high kings in place of
the Catuvellauni who had
been so completely defeated, and so quickly defeated. Many of the later
Roman-period names claimed by much later writers as high kings were nothing
of the sort. They were often Roman emperors, Roman senior commanders in Britain
(such as Magnus Maximus), or even Roman usurpers (such as the Carausius of 286).
In fact, it seems that anyone who could rule all of Britain in defiance of Rome
itself was eligible. |
43 - 51 |
Caratacus fights from 43-51, first in the territories of the
Cantii and the
Catuvellauni, from where
he takes shelter with the southern Dobunni.
He then moves to the
Silures and the
Ordovices, before being defeated in battle for the last time. Caratacus
takes shelter with the
Brigantes, but is betrayed and handed over to the
Romans. Taken in
chains to Rome, Emperor Claudius pardons him and his family, and they live out
their lives in Rome. The
Demetae appear to be subdued in AD 51 but complete conquest of Wales is not
effected until AD 79. The
Dumnonians
are subdued by AD 55, and probably the neighbouring
Cornovii with them. |
|
43 - 51 |
Caratacus / Guiderius |
High King of the Britons in opposition to
Rome. |
|
|
|
59 - 61 |
Once Prasutagus
of the Iceni
dies, the Romans
begin to ignore the terms of the Iceni's client-statehood. Stirred up by
imperial heavy-handedness, Boudicca leads a powerful Celtic uprising involving the Iceni, the
Trinovantes
and other tribes. It results in the loss to the Romans of lower eastern Britannia.
After sacking and burning Campulodunum, Londinium, and Verulamium (St Albans),
the Celts are confronted by a fresh Roman army under Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus
and are defeated. Boudicca's fate is unknown, but it is presumed that she
commits suicide rather than allow herself to fall into Roman hands.
 |
|
Two sides of a coin issued about AD 61 showing the face of
Boudicca and a horse, which was a valuable commodity amongst the
Britons
|
|
|
|
|
|
70 - 125 |
A period of intense building work following the Boudiccan revolt takes place
in London during the Flavian period in the
Roman
empire, doubling the size of the the municipium and turning it
into one of the greatest of cities in Britannia. |
74 - 125 |
Marius
/ Meric/ Merius / Meurig |
High King.
King of the Silures. |
78 - 79 |
The
Roman
governor, Julius Agricola, continues his campaign from the territory of the
Ordovices and breaks the
Deceangli in
Mona (Anglesey). Troops are withdrawn from the territory of the
Dumnonii to support the
campaign. |
80 - 84 |
The Roman
governor of Britannia leads two invading columns into Lowland Scotland, The
force sets up permanent garrisons in its wake. In AD 81 the Forth-Clyde line
is secured, perhaps slightly south of the later Antonine Wall. The following
year, the Romans secure the western coast up to the Clyde to contain the tribesmen there (the
Damnonii,
Selgovae, and
Novantae) and perhaps prevent
Irish landings. Within
the Pictish heartland, firstly north
of the Firth of Forth (in AD 83) and then at Mons Graupius (in AD 84), the Romans
win victories over what they call the 'Caledonides' led by Calgucus (probably
involving the tribal grouping of the
Creones and their neighbours along the
western coast), and then fight a decisive battle to end the campaign.
|
fl 100 - 105 |
Arviragus /
Arbitrages |
Hostile,
chariot-borne British chieftain, mentioned in Juvenal. |
c.100 - 105 |
Arviragus seems
to have been a chief of the northern Brigantes
who may be responsible for the burning of the
Roman
auxiliary fort at Corsopitum, as well as others, as the British tribes of lowland Scotland
stage a major uprising. By AD 100 the Romans give up Scotland, and fully establish their
defences along the Tyne-Solway line. Geoffrey of Monmouth claims Arviragus
as the son of High King Cymbeline and the father of Marius of the
Silures. |
c.118 - 120 |
That Britain is the scene of some serious warfare is not in doubt. However,
although the weight of evidence points to an invasion from outside the
province, this is by no means certain. Emperor Hadrian visits and authorises
the construction of a stone Wall along the Tyne-Solway line in 121-122 as
part of his defensive reorganisations to divide the barbarians from the
Romans. Some forts are maintained to the north of the western section,
once the wall is completed in around 127. |
125 - 154 |
Coilus
/ Coel |
Son of Marius. Puppet king, according to the
Damnonii exiles. |
c.125 - 130 |
A fairly serious fire occurs in Londinium, presumably from accidental
causes. Rapid action is taken to rebuilt the damaged sections of the city.
 |
|
A recreation of Roman Londinium |
|
|
140 - 143 |
The
Romans
move north to the Forth-Clyde line, roughly the southern
Pictish boundary, reoccupying
Lowland Scotland and beginning construction of the more basic Antonine Wall
(curiously, this takes place immediately after a revolt by the
Brigantes is put down).
Coins announcing a victory are issued in late 142 or early 143 to mark the
event. |
148 |
Corvus of the Alt Clut
Damnonii apparently announces the creation of the kingdom in 148, raising a
following of British patriots. He dies fighting the
Romans
in 184 but his kingdom remains outside direct Imperial control, one of four such
kingdoms. The others are probably those of the
Votadini and
Selgovae Britons, and
the Novantae Picts. |
154? - 180? |
Lucius
/ Llewrug Mawr |
Son of Coilus.
King of the Silures. Introduced Christianity? |
163 |
In response to a
growing need for troops elsewhere, the
Romans
seem to abandon the northern, Antonine Wall, although some outpost forts may remain in
use until at least the 180s. A fort excavated at Camelon, just two
kilometres or so east of Falkirk, seems to confirm a withdrawal date of this
time. Hadrian's Wall itself is certainly still garrisoned, as archaeology has proven. |
165 - 180 |
Plague enters
Rome
from the east, brought back by returning legionaries. It
quickly spreads throughout the empire and is generally known as the Antonine
Plague. When it arrives in Britain it strikes hard. In 2004, archaeologists
uncover the remains of ninety-one men, women and children dumped haphazardly
into a mass grave at Glevum in the territory of the former
Dobunni tribe. |
|
c.170 - 175 |
The coastal tribe of the
Chauci have long been sea raiders, but by the late second century
the problem has grown much worse. Now Chauci raids are as bad as the better-known
Saxon raids of the fourth century, but what is assumed to be their last
recorded attack happens in this period. Archaeological finds show a layer of
destruction along a great deal of the North Sea and Atlantic coast of
Europe, between Belgica and southern Gaul, and in eastern
Britain, well inside the territory of modern Essex.
The Chauci are prime suspects for the raids, and
Rome
responds with improved defensive measures over the following thirty years or
so. Fortifications are put in place at sites including the
Iceni
civitas of Venta Icenorum (modern Caistor-by-Norwich),
the
Trinovantes town of Caesaromagus (modern Chelmsford), and the civitas
of the Canninefates, Forum Hadriani (modern Voorburg). This is the start
of the system that will develop into the Saxon Shore in Britain. |
175 |
The
Roman
emperor, Marcus Aurelius, defeats the Iazyges tribe of
Alans. He takes them into
Roman service and settles them in northern Britain, at Ribchester, south
of Lancaster. The Alans are assigned to the VI Legion Victrix, commanded
by the Alani warlord who is renamed Lucius Artorius Castus (a candidate for
the battle leader, Arthur, of the fifth century). |
|
178 - 180? |
Lucius writes to
Pope Eleutherius of the
Roman Church
requesting to become a Christian. The event is first noted in the sixth
century Liber Pontificalis, and Bede repeats it, after which Lucius
is widely acclaimed as being responsible for introducing Christianity into
Britain. His story is expanded by later writers, when he is claimed as the
son of former High King Coilus and is credited with founding the church of
St Peter upon Cornhill in London (the church carries a plaque to the effect,
dating the event to 179). In fact, Lucius may be a misreading of Lucius
Aelius Megas Abgar IX,
Roman
client king of Osroene. However, whether through the involvement of Lucius
or not, a British Church does apparently begin to make its presence felt in
the country during this century.
Geoffrey of Monmouth claims a date of death for Lucius of AD 156. His home
has been in Caer Gloui,
suggesting perhaps that it falls within the edges of Silures
territory or that they may be a dynastic link between the Silures and the
Dobunni. Lucius dies without
an heir to succeed him, and the (legendary) high kingship falls vacant.
Subsequently, many Roman figures are listed as high kings, some of which
certainly do hold positions of power in Britain, either as regional
commanders or usurpers. |
180 - 185 |
A serious attack of the northern peoples takes place upon the death of the
Roman emperor in 180, either from north of Hadrian's Wall into the province
itself (with Alt Clut
being an especial candidate), or from beyond the Antonine Wall to attack and
devastate Roman forts in Lowland Scotland. Either way, it seems probably that
in 184-185 the Roman governor, Ulpius Marcellus, campaigns with two legions
into Lowland Scotland and beyond
the Forth-Clyde line.
From the point of view of the high kingship, it seems perhaps more than
coincidental that this attack, or uprising, occurs straight after the
presumed date of death for Lucius. Could he have provided a voice of reason
and complicity with the Romans which the northern peoples chose to observe
during his lifetime? Geoffrey of Monmouth has the attack being lead by a
British noble man named Sulgenius. Ultimately he captures York and is
besieged there. He kills Severus in combat but is mortally wounded himself
(which would suggest that the uprising lasts for about thirty years, as the
death of Severus is in 211). |
|
|
|
193 - 197 |
Decimus Clodius Albinus |
Rival emperor of
Rome.
Governor of Britain. |
197 |
Upon Albinus' defeat, Severus immediately divides the single province of
Britannia, probably in a temporary fashion at first, with division being
confirmed within two or three years. |
198 - 217 |
Bassianus (Caracalla) |
Son of Septimus Severus. Emperor of
Rome. |
209 - 212 |
Geta |
Brother. Joint emperor of
Rome.
Murdered by Caracalla. |
209 - 211 |
Roman
Emperor Severus leads a campaign against the
Caledonii in person,
making his headquarters (and the centre of the Roman empire for three years)
at Eboracum (York), but ill-health means he has to hand control of its day-to-day conduct to Caracalla. |
|
|
|
260 - 274 |
The
Roman Postumus declares himself emperor in Germany, Gaul, Spain, and
Britain. For the next thirteen years the whole of the north-western part of
the empire is run as an independent but fully Roman state with its own
series of emperors, and is called the 'Empire of the Gallic Provinces' (Imperium
Galliarum). |
260 - 268 |
Marcus Cassianus Latinius Postumus |
Usurper emperor of
Rome. |
268 - 270 |
Victorinus |
Usurper emperor of
Rome. |
270 - 274 |
Tetricus |
Usurper emperor of
Rome. |
271 |
Domitianus |
Usurper
emperor of
Rome.
'Ruled' for four days. |
c.275? |
Trahern |
Semi-mythical
brother of Coel Godhebog. Defeated by Octavius. |
277 |
Vandali
and Burgundians who
had crossed the Rhine to invade the
Roman empire are defeated by Emperor Probus and are resettled in Britannia. |
fl c.283 |
Octavius / Eudaf Hen |
King of Ewyas. |
285 |
Roman emperor
Diocletian takes the title of Britannicus Maximus, and it seems reasonable to assume
that a military success of some importance had been won in his name in Britannia. |
286 - 287 |
Carausius, a
Roman
commander of low birth who had been impressive under Maximianus' command, is
suspected of collusion with raiding barbarians. When his execution is
ordered he proclaims himself emperor and seizes the provinces of Britannia.
It is at this time that at least one of the Saxon Shore forts is built, that
of Anderitum in the territory of the
Regninses. |
286 - 293 |
Marcus Mausaeus Carausius |
Usurper emperor of
Rome. |
293 |
Following
the loss of their territories in Gaul to
Constantius Chlorus, the western
Roman
Caesar, Allectus
assassinates Carausius and assumes command himself. |
293 - 296 |
Caius Allectus |
Usurper emperor of
Rome. |
296 |
Allectus is defeated and killed as
Rome recaptures Britannia, leaving its
victorious commander in charge. Geoffrey of Monmouth gives Asclepiodotus the
title, duke of
Cornwall. |
296 - 305 |
Asclepiodotus |
Roman commander who recovered Britain for
Rome. |
303 |
St George, an officer of the Roman army, is in Britannia when he hears that
Christians of the
Roman Church are being persecuted by Emperor Diocletian in
Rome.
He returns to plead their case but is eventually beheaded for refusing to
renounce his own belief (George becomes the patron saint of
England in
the fourteenth century). |
fl c.305 |
Coel Godhebog |
Lord of Colchester (early Roman
capital of Britain). High king. |
305 |
According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Coel Godhebog is lord of Colchester, or
Caer Colim (effectively a dux, and perhaps even a protector of part
of the Saxon Shore, given his location). In legendary terms, he begins a
rebellion against Asclepiodotus and kills him in battle. Then Coel rules the
country, submitting to Constantius (suggesting that Coel is a mere
figurehead high king, just as Lucius may have been before him, in the second
century). Coel dies after a short reign. |
305 - 306 |
Constantius Chlorus |
Emperor of
Rome.
Married Helena. Died at Eboracum. |
305 - 306 |
Britannia's
two provinces are subdivided into four by
Roman reorganisations.
These are named (by no later than 314) as Britannia Prima (with a capital at
Glevum in former Dobunni
territory), Britannia Secunda,
Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis. At the same time, Constantius
personally leads a campaign into
Caledonia to bring the elusive tribes in the Highlands to battle and
ensure a period of renewed peace. |
306 - 337 |
Constantine the Great |
Emperor of
Rome.
Elevated at Eboracum. |
314 |
Three bishops of the British Church participate in the
Roman Church's Council of Arles: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London,
and Adelphius of Lincoln or possibly Colchester. |
337 - 343 |
The death of Constantine,
and then his eldest son, Constantine II in battle in 340, proves serious for
Britannia. Its early fourth century age of peace and prosperity begins to vanish.
Constans makes a sudden visit in early 343, suggesting something had happened in
342 (possibly warfare against the tribes north of the Wall) to bring him to
Britannia at a most unusual time for Channel crossings. It is also suggested that
the widespread refortification of cities which occurs in this century happens as a
result of this visit. Units of Germanic laeti begin to appear in some
cities, notably Venta Belgarum in the
Belgae civitas, and migration
begins from south-western Britain (notably the former territories of the
Cornovii and
Dumnonii) into
Armorica. |
353 |
Following the rebellion of the
Roman usurper Magnentius, a witch hunt is conducted, notably in
Britannia, where the feared notarius (imperial notary) Paulus lives up to
his reputation by targeting the innocent as well as the guilty. In fact the
methods used are so extreme and unjust that the vicarius of Britain, Flavius
Martinus, attempts to persuade Paulus to release the innocent, and, failing,
threatens resignation. This only results in false accusations against him,
so as a final desperate act, Martinus is driven to attack Paulus with a
sword. Unsuccessful, he commits suicide. |
fl 356? |
Carausius II |
An unverified usurper between 354-358. |
359 |
Three bishops of the British Church participate in the
Roman Church's Council of Ariminum. The fact that they have to accept
assistance with their travel suggests that as institutions the churches in
Britannia are not well-off. |
364 |
According to Ammianus Marcellinus, the Picts,
Scotti,
Saxons, and Attacotti
(possibly the Britons of Alt
Clut) attack Roman Britain in what seems to be a serious incursion. The
term 'Saxons' is used by the Romans to cover all Teutonic races, so these
attacks might also be by
Jutes,
Frisians, or
Angles on the eastern North Sea coast, or even the
Danes
in southern Scandinavia.
|
c.366 |
Shortly before 367, three people are killed in Vindolanda Fort near
Hadrian's Wall. Archaeologists discover two of them in the 1930s and a
coroner's inquest decides they are 'victims of murder by persons unknown'.
The third person, who is not necessarily killed at the same time, is thought
to be a girl aged between eight and ten who may be tied up before she dies.
Human burials are strictly forbidden within built-up areas, and Vindolanda
has a cemetery laid out on the settlement's outskirts. The body is located
in a shallow pit dug in a corner of the garrison's living quarters at the
heart of the fort. It would be very difficult to get a body out of the
barracks, through the wider fort and out of the gate, so hiding it here is
much easier, but whether the men who share the barracks are accessories is
unknown.
|
367 |
The Barbarian Conspiracy sees attacks falling on the island from all sides,
although this seems to be the culmination of seven years of largescale
trouble on behalf of the Picts,
Scotti,
Saxons, and the
mysterious Attacotti.
Roman general Theodosius (the Elder) is sent to salvage the situation.
At the same point in time, the evidence points to Roman towns being much
poorer, politically inactive, and socially weak, although by no means dead. |
372 |
In an act of imperial favour, an Alamannic king, Fraomar, is sent to
Britannia as a military tribune to command a
Roman unit of
Alemanni
cavalry which is already stationed on the island, as recorded by Ammianus. |
|
Geoffrey of Monmouth relates that Octavius begins a rebellion against
Roman
rule which ousts the Roman proconsul. Octavius rules the country until
Trahern, a Briton commanding Roman forces, defeats him in two battles and
recovers the country for Rome. He is soon murdered, and Octavius is restored to power.
However, it is impossible to discover how true any of this might be. Perhaps it
represents a level of unrest in the country that is related to the Barbarian
Conspiracy of 367, or perhaps it is simply an invention by later story
tellers to enhance the background from which Magnus Maximus emerges. |
|
Octavius / Octaf |
Some confusion about this
Octavius and Eudaf Hen of c.283. |
|
Trahern |
Defeated Octavius for
Rome. Murdered in the street. |
fl c.378? |
Octavius / Octaf |
Regained throne.
|
378 - 388 |
Magnus Maximus |
Western Roman
emperor 383-388. |
382 |
Although his exact
rank is unknown, Magnus Maximus (or Maximianus, British Maxsen, or
Welsh Macsen Wledig) is clearly a senior commander
in Roman Britain
and an invasion of Picts is successfully defeated
by him shortly before he mounts his expedition into Gaul.
According to British oral tradition which later survives in Wales, High King
Octaf has a daughter named Elen who is sought out by Emperor Maximus after
he first sees her in a dream. Octaf's sister's son is Conan Meriadoc, the
foremost of the princes of Britain. At first he is angry that a foreigner
has been selected to marry Elen when there are so many eligible Britons, but
after threatening to expel the foreigner by force he is won over and becomes
firm friends with Magnus. |
383 |
Maximus revolts
against ineffectual governance from
Rome
and plans to invade Gaul with a large army. In preparation, he sets up defences in
Wales to protect the west coast from
Irish raiders. This includes the
creation of a territory in mid-south Wales under the command of his son,
Eugenius (incorporating Cernyw
and Ewyas). Some forts are
abandoned at this time, probably as part of a general reorganisation of the
available defensive units. From this point on, all of Britain's high kings
originate from within the country, and Maximus selects Coel Hen as his replacement
to command most of the militarised zone of Northern Britain. Once the invasion of
Gaul commences, Armorica
is probably one of the first areas captured, and Maximus is credited by
Geoffrey of Monmouth with setting up Conan Meriadoc as high king there. |
383 - 388 |
Caradocus |
Mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Ruled in Maximus' name. |
388? - 406? |
Coel Hen, Dux Brittanorum |
'King of Northern Britain', based at Ebrauc. |
c.384 - 390 |
Warfare flares up with the Picts
again, and according to Gildas (the first of his 'Pictish wars'), it lasts
'for many years'. Upon Maximus' death in 388,
Emperor
Theodosius sends a legion (or a specialist taskforce), probably by 390, to help
stop the Pictish attacks once he has promises of submission from the island. |
|
c.390 |
The
Deceangli and
Ordovices tribes
do not have a chance to re-emerge at a time when
Roman central
authority in the west of Britain is fading earlier and faster than elsewhere.
Under threat by waves of
Irish
raiders, much of the land of these two tribes is incorporated into a new
territory when Cunedda Wledig and his branch of Romanised
Venicones are
transferred from the Manau dependency of the
Goutodin
to secure north Wales from the raiders. They are extremely successful, and the kingdom of
Gwynedd is formed by them. |
392 - 394 |
Britannia is again isolated from
Rome
by the revolt of Arbogast and Eugenius. |
398 |
It is possible that
Roman forces defeat
Saxons,
Irish Scots, and the
Picts in fighting which has
been linked to the second of Gildas' 'Pictish wars'. This is the probably
source of the Britons' appeal for help to Rome around this time, although it
seems possible that there is in fact no victory, and Stilicho merely
attends to the island's defences before withdrawing more troops. One of the
Saxon Shore forts known to undergo repairs at this time is that of Anderitum,
in the civitas of the Regninses. |
402 |
The official import of new coinage in large quantities comes to an end. |
404/405 |
Troops are withdrawn from Britannia to form part of the
Roman
army that defeats a force of
Goths and other barbarians
in northern
Italy. This comes in the same year as further
Irish Scotti raids take place
on the south coast. |
406 |
The British provinces are relatively isolated and now constantly lack support
from the Empire
in their fight against barbarian incursions, so from 406 the remaining soldiers
raise a series of their own claimants to the throne. Marcus is probably
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Dionotus, whom he calls the duke of
Cornwall. Gracianus Municeps
is named by Bede. |
406 |
Marcus (Dionotus?) |
Elevated
Roman soldier. Ruled
for a few months. |
407 |
Gracianus Municeps (Gratian) |
Urban magistratus or councillor. Ruled for four months.
Killed. |
|
After failing to win support from
Rome
in their hour of need, Geoffrey of Monmouth's semi-mythical history of
Britain has the Britons
seeking help from Aldroenus, fourth king after Conanus in 'Little Britain, called at that time
Armorica or Letavia'. Guithelinus, archbishop
of London, is sent to ask the king to take the crown of Britain, but the
country has fallen so far from its former magnificence that he declines the
offer.
Instead he sends his brother, Constantine, with two thousand soldiers.
Constantine is raised to the kingship of Britain.
|
407 - 411 |
Constantine III (Custennin ap Selyf) |
Usurper Western Roman
emperor. |
408 - 411 |
|
Constans ap Custennin |
Son. Caesar. Killed in Gaul. |
409 |
With Constantine having serious problems in Gaul, further
Saxon raids convince the British and
Armoricans to rebel and
expel Roman officials, thereby breaking ties with
Rome
that are never renewed. Roman presence in Britain has been dwindling anyway,
for at least the previous three decades, so the split probably produces
little change, except that British officials now occupy former imperial
posts. Records from this point become extremely sparse and
British control on a national level appears to break down for a time. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Post-Roman
Britain
With the expulsion of
Roman
officials in AD 409, Britain again became independent of Rome
and was not re-occupied. The fragmentation which had begun to emerge towards
the end of the fourth century now appears to have accelerated, with minor
princes, newly declared kings, and Roman-style magistrates all vying for
power and influence while also facing the threat of extinction at the hands
of the various barbarian tribes who were encroaching on the borders from all
sides.
Various units of laeti and foederati
had been settled in the country from the mid-fourth century onwards
(probably following the sudden visit to Britain by Emperor Constans in 343).
By 409 they had been settled for up to sixty years, and may not have
retained much of their 'Germanness'. The country was probably filled with
immigrants from all over the former empire: Italians, Gauls, Spanish,
Danubians, many of them the descendants of legionnaires and all settled for
some time. By now they were part of the very fabric of the country. However,
as Edward Dawson points out, later units of laeti may not have been
so settled, and there appear to have been large numbers of them around many
towns in the south-east of Britain. Amongst all the empire's immigrants, it
was the Germans who best retained their cultural identity, sometimes for
generations, continuing to teach their children German when others were
learning Latin, or perhaps native British. When fresh waves of Germans
arrived, conquering all in their path, it was probably not hard for the
settled Germans to experience a change of loyalty.
The new states that appeared in Britain (and in some
cases disappeared) or were consolidated in the fifth century include
Alt Clut,
Bernaccia,
Bro Erech,
Caer Celemion,
Caer Colun,
Caer Gloui,
Caer Gwinntguic,
Caer Went,
Ceint,
Cernyw,
Cornouaille,
Cornubia,
Demetia,
Domnonia,
Dumnonia,
Ebrauc,
Elmet,
Ercing,
Goutodin,
Gwent,
Gwynedd,
Powys,
Rhegin, and
Vannetais.
(Additional information by Mick Baker and Edward Dawson.) |
409 - c.425 |
This is a period in which central administration apparently breaks down to an extent,
with local administrative centres and then rulers beginning to appear. The
climb to power of Vortigern of the
Pagenses seems to reverse this trend, although in some regions
he probably has to administer what are in effect kingdoms rather than
provinces. Quite possibly, in true
Roman
fashion, he acquires the title of emperor, perhaps proclaiming himself
'Emperor of Britannia' in order to cement his hold on power. It seems
that he and Aurelius Ambrosius of
Caer Gloui form the
figureheads for opposing parties, but for the moment it is he who
has dominance.
During this period, mercenaries, or laeti, are settled in some regions of the
country, possibly to bolster populations of foederati and laeti
that may already have been in place for some generations. Groups are known
to exist along the Thames
Valley, in the north of
Caer Celemion,
and along the Saxon Shore from
Caer Gwinntguic
to Ceint and
Caer Went. There is a
strong economic reason for placing them in the Thames Valley and other
lowland areas. Northern coastal Germans (Angles,
Jutes,
Frisians and
Saxons)
are accustomed to employing a farm economy set in lowlands, not uplands.
They know how to work marshes and river valleys, so these settlement areas
suit them entirely. |
416 |
A
synod is held in
Carthage (the Council of Carthage) in the
Roman province of
Africa which takes a firm line against the Pelagian 'heresy'. Pelagius
(c.354-420/440) is a British
ascetic who has allegedly denied the doctrine of original sin and he finds
many supporters in Britain and the British Church, especially amongst the educated classes. |
420 |
The use of coinage (usually silver coins) as the means of substantial
payment seems to die out within ten years of this date. However, a high
level of self-sufficiency in both civil service and the army had already
become the established norm in Britain for the best part of a century, so
this in itself is far from being a sign of the collapse of civilisation. |
425 - c.455 |
Wortigernos
/ Vitalinus (Vortigern) |
King
of Pagenses. First emperor of Britain? Died
by fire. |
429 |
St Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, and Lupus, bishop of Troyes, visit Britain
to fight the Pelagian 'heresy' that is running rampant through the British
Church. They meet with a still extant Romano-British
aristocracy (the principle proponents of the heresy), probably at Verulamium
(Caer Mincip, possibly administered from
Caer Colun).
The following year, in line with standard
Roman imperial policy in Gaul,
Vortigern brings in
Saxon allies to help restore order along the borders.
 |
|
The Alleluia Victory saw St Germanus lead the Britons to a
bloodless victory over marauding Saxons, perhaps demonstrating
that the country was finally managing its own defence
|
|
|
c.432 - 436 |
Aurelius Ambrosius of
Caer Gloui is apparently a leader of a British
council, which presumably answers to Vortigern. It is his decision to confirm
the Irish Deisi as commanders of the Demetia area of the west coast to
counter the threat of Irish
raiders. Vortigern acquiesces and assigns Ambrosius 'Dinas
Emrys and all the western lands', suggesting that Ambrosius becomes the architect for
the defence of these western areas. This is motivated by the council's reluctance to
depend entirely on
Saxon mercenaries, with their constant demands for
increased provisions, especially in an area were they would be lightly
supervised. The Deisi have already been settled for some time and would be
self-supporting. |
c.437/438 |
According to Gildas and Nennius when referring to either
Aurelianus Ambrosius (Ambrosius the Elder) or his son, this family represents the
Romanised
nobility in Britain, and they appear to be based at the city of
Caer Gloui and its
surrounding territories. They are the main opposition to Vortigern's
pro-Celtic faction, and it is at this time that the increasing animosity
between the two groups erupts into internecine warfare. The factions fight the
Battle of Guolloppum (Cat Guolph, Wallop in Hampshire). The result is
uncertain, but it is probably followed by a period of civil strife in
eastern and southern Britain. |
fl c.437 - c.446 |
Ambrosius the Elder |
Leader of the
Romanised
opposition in Britain. Killed by plague. |
c.440 - 441 |
Saxon foederati and laeti (settled on the east coast and
Thames Valley, and probably
increased in number since the barbarian raids on Britain of 409) take advantage of
the unrest and openly revolt. As a cause they cite the failure of the British to
supply them with provisions which may have been reduced to zero as a consequence
of the civil war.
By 441, the Gallic Chronicles report large sections of Britain under German control
following Saxon revolt: "Britain, abandoned by the
Romans,
passed into the power of the Saxons". Communications between Britain and Gaul
are disrupted, vacated towns and cities are in ruin. The migration of Romano-British
towards the west and to Armorica
turns into a torrent, with emigrants coming especially from
Dumnonia and
Cornubia. The country
begins to be divided geographically, along factional lines. |
c.446 |
St Germanus' second visit to Britain rids the country of the last of the
Pelagian heresy when he visits Elafius' subjects. Elafius seems likely
to have been the leader of the territory of
Caer Gwinntguic.
Severe plague hits southern Britain in the same year, and unburied bodies
are to be found in the streets of cities such as
Caer Ceri. |
450 |
Former
Celtic tribal associations continue to re-emerge as independent territories
and kingdoms develop over the course of the fifth century. There is evidence
of the reuse and refortification of Iron Age hill forts. Cadbury Congresbury
in Somerset is producing substantial quantities of Mediterranean pottery, with
smaller amounts also coming from South Cadbury as local leaders move their
residences to more protected locations.
It is attacks by the Picts
(under Drust mac Erp) and Irish
Scotti that prompts Vortigern to hire
Jutish and
Angle
mercenaries to fight them off. Hengist and Horsa are invited into Britain and
land at Ypwines fleot (Ebbsfleet). Traditionally, they fulfil the terms of their
contract by fighting back the invaders and receive territory on which to settle
on the island of Ynys Tanatus (Thanet) in
Ceint (although
according to British oral tradition, they are first given territory around
the Wash and only gain Tanatus after their numbers are swelled by a massive
influx of their countrymen).
|
c.455 |
According to later British tradition, Vortigern is removed from office by
the council after trying to settle yet more foreign laeti in Britain,
this time in the north-east, within the territory of the 'Kingdom of
Northern Britain'. The high
kingship is given to his eldest son, the able and popular Vortimer. Hengist,
seeing that he no longer has a malleable ally, revolts and the
territory or kingdom of Ceint
is quickly overrun. |
c.455
- 457 |
Vortimer / Britu |
Son of Vortigern. King of Gwent.
Appointed to replace Vortigern. |
c.455 |
In the east of the island, the new and more serious foederati revolt
sees a loss of territory to
Jutes and
Angles
that is never regained by the Britons. The new arrivals have seen how weak
are the British defences and begin a takeover of the kingdom of
Ceint,
aided by the many foederati settlements in key areas of the land,
especially along the Saxon Shore forts and at Canterbury.
They are probably further encouraged by the chaos in
Roman
Gaul following the murder of the magister militum Aetius. Hengist's
polyglot army fights British forces (traditionally commanded by Vortimer) at a place they name Ægelesthrep or Ægelsthrep
(probably Aylesford or, less likely, Epsford, both in
Kent). Vortimer's brother, Cadeyrn Fendigaid,
king of the Pagenses, is killed,
as is Hengist's brother, Horsa.
Again
according to later tradition, Vortimer is poisoned and his death allows Vortigern
to reclaim the high kingship temporarily before he is faced by Ambrosius Aurelianus.
Vortigern flees to his ancestral lands, 'at the fortified camp of Genoreu, on the
hill called Cloartius', in Ercing,
by the River Wye. There he meets his end when Ambrosius sets fire to his fortress
with him inside it. Historically speaking, as much as extremely limited historical
knowledge will allow, Aurelianus and his probable successor, Artorius, seem to lead
the fight to preserve the remaining British territory. If Vortigern had titled
himself 'Emperor of Britannia', then it seems reasonable to assume that his
successors copy this, but after Artorius even the grounds for this supposition
become reduced. |
c.457 - c.480 |
Ambrosius Aurelianus |
Magistrate of
Caer Gloui.
Possible 2nd emperor of Britain. |
|
Geoffrey
of Monmouth proposes an almost entirely mythical account of the life of
Ambrosius Aurelianus. It ends with him being poisoned by
Saxons, and his brother, Utherpendragon, succeeds him. Uther immediately
sets out to attack the Saxons involved in his brother's death, who have
teamed up with Paschent (Pascent of
Buellt), son of Vortigern, and a young nobleman of
Ireland named Gillomanius
(could this individual be the contemporaneous High King Lóeguire macNéill?).
Uther defeats them all, killing Paschent and Gillomanius. Then Uther has to
defeat a resurgent Octa (which scholars think might actually be the real
name of Hengist of Kent) before
enjoying a largely peaceful reign that leads up to the well-known death of
Gorlois of Cornwall
and the birth of
Arthur Pendragon. |
457 |
After much hard fighting at a place called Crecganford (Crayford in Kent),
and apparently heavy losses, the British abandon
Ceint. The
Saxons who
had joined Hengist in 455 also settle in what is becoming Kent, but they have little impact on
the Jutish nature of the kingdom and leave few traces. Some of them instead
push further west to form early elements of the Middel Seaxe. |
477 |
Newly arrived
Saxons
under Ælle and his sons land at Cymens ora and beat off the
Britons who oppose their landing (part of the proposed British kingdom of
Rhegin),
driving them to take refuge in the great forest called Andredesleag (The
Weald). These Saxons quickly become known as the
Suth Seaxe. |
c.480 - 511 |
Artorius / Arthur Pendragon |
Son of Uthyr/Uther & Eigr. Possible 3rd emperor of Britain. |
|
There
is a great deal of material that has been written about Arthur, or more
properly Artorius, but there is no direct proof of his existence. For that reason,
many scholars have chosen to disbelieve entirely in his existence. However,
it seems impossible that an individual who makes such an impact on history
that later generations of kings name their sons after him, and who is
included in a vast body of literature could not exist. In an historical
sense, it seems logical to place him in the last few decades of the fifth
century, governing, or at least protecting, the country after Ambrosius
Aurelianus and before his traditional date of death in 511 (or 538 by some
sources).
Traditionally, again, he is the son of Eigr (Ygerna), the daughter of Anblaud 'the
Imperator', who has a connection to
Ercing. He marries Guinevere, a medieval form of a
Cornish name that
is probably Veneva (and which descends as the modern Jennifer). She is a
princess of Dumnonia,
and possibly a sister to King Gerren. Artorius himself is primarily a leader
of cavalry, the best weapon of the British against the foot-slogging
Saxons for as long as they can maintain their breeding stock. This is
the force he leads against Geoffrey of Monmouth's Saxon leaders, Colgrin,
Badulf, and Chelderic (the first of whom is sometimes linked to
Deywr), while being supported
by King Hoel of Brittany. This is
also how he enters into legend. |
488 |
This is the last recorded entry for the
Jutes of
Kent in the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle until 565. The battles against the Britons move further westwards
as they lose the south coast to the
Suth Seaxe, Londinium to
the Middel Seaxe and their
Suther-ge, and
the Upper Thames to the Thames Valley
Saxons and Ciltern Saetan.
However, the influx of
Saxon fighters may have slackened since 460, when
the prospects for soldiers of fortune may have seemed better in the remnants of
Roman
Gaul, coupled with the fact that the Britons are apparently starting to gain the upper hand.
Despite this apparent improvement in fortunes, the sense of profound shock
that has been dealt to British society by events since the first major Saxon
revolt around 441 has triggered changes that will see the rapid mutation of
British into early Welsh in the
space of about a century. Young people in this period who grow up with
British and Latin languages may be hearing their grandchildren speaking a
different tongue. Even the bardic tradition begins to break down, with the
sounds and patterns of their words destroyed by the changes. Much of the
Iron Age tradition is lost, although fragments survive.
 |
|
The Roman city of Canterbury was, by the sixth century, in
ruins, with small Jutish houses built in between. The
remains of the city wall can be seen in the distance
|
|
|
495 |
According
to tradition Cerdic lands in five ships on the south coast at Cerdices ora, together with
Saxon and possibly some
Jutish
companions, and begins a takeover of the local Jutish, Saxon
and sub-Roman territories. The Jutes and
Saxons who are already settled there are apparently already referring to themselves
as the West Seaxe (possibly separate from the
earlier Meonware settlers to the east).
The fighting begins on the same day as Cerdic 'arrives', suggesting that his
potential power play begins in violence or immediate resistance. If Cerdic
is in fact a Briton who rebels against the remaining central authority (which
seems to be a distinct possibility), then given his location he could be
serving as a magistrate of the Belgae territory of
Caer Gwinntguic
until he seizes part of the tribe's territory in order to found
his own little empire. It is another blow to British unity and defence. |
c.496 |
Arthur commands the defence of
Mons Badonicus against a confederation of
Saxon and
Jutish
warriors which is led by Ælle of the
Suth Saxe. The British victory grants them
a generation of relative peace and consigns the South Saxons to subsequent obscurity.
All building and repair work on major new defensive works probably comes to an
end with the victory. |
|
Geoffrey of Monmouth has Arthur handing the kingship over to Constantine,
but that would presume that the dating shown here is wrong. An alternative
date (also given by Geoffrey) for Arthur's retreat to Avalon (Glastonbury in
Dumnonia) is 542,
which would provide an overlap between Arthur and Constantine, but would
displace Arthur's fifth century activity against the
Saxons. This revision might only work if his father, Utherpendragon, had
actually existed and had enjoyed the long reign given to him by Geoffrey.
|
c.530 - c.540 |
Constantine / Custennin ab Cado |
King of
Dumnonia. |
fl 540 |
Aurelius Conanus |
King of
Caer Gloui. |
? - 540 |
Vortiporus
/ Vortiporius |
King of
Demetia. |
c.540 - 549 |
Malgo
/ Maglocun / Maelgwyn Gwynedd |
King of
Gwynedd. |
|
547 |
In the north, the British kingdom of
Bernaccia is seized by the
Angles
who have been serving as laeti and the ruling king, Morgan Bulc is
forced out. He takes refuge with the
Goutodin, shifting
his power base there, but the loss leaves a gaping hole in the defences of
the eastern coastline. It is the first such breach in the defences of the
north, despite a century of such chaos to the south of Britain, and suddenly
the defensive strength of the Men of the North looks shaky. |
549 - c.600 |
Following
the death of the powerful Maelgwyn, and given the dearth of information
about the Northern British kings at this time, it is entirely plausible to
place Keretic and the 'three unnamed tyrants' below
as kings in the North.
It is odd to have such a gap so late in the list, but not if those rulers
were from the poorly documented North. The
Saxon advance in the south also lends weight to this hypothesis (by Mick Baker).
Their westwards advance becomes much more rapid, with them soon swallowing much
of Somerset and Dorset from
Dumnonia. The
Angles
also advance, taking large swathes of central and northern Britain, and ending
any realistic claim by the high kings of Britain to rule over the whole island.
|
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Three
unnamed tyrants now claim the high kingship. The names below are accepted as
high kings in other references, and their dates fall conveniently into the gap
left between the reigns of Malgo and Keretic, but they are not in the list
formed by Geoffrey of Monmouth. To differentiate them, they are shown here
in red text. |
549 - 560? |
|
Morgan Bulc |
King of
Bernaccia (to 547), and
Goutodin (c.560 onwards). |
552 |
The
West Seaxe conquest of
Caer Gwinntguic
proves that the southern Saxons have recovered from their massive
Mons Badonicus defeat.
From this point onwards, the Britons continually lose territory until the
modern borders of Wales are decided. |
560? - 579 |
|
Rhydderch Hen |
King of
Alt Clut. |
579 - 590 |
|
Urien |
King of
North Rheged. |
577 |
Caer Gloui, together with
Caer Baddan and
Caer Ceri, falls to
the West Seaxe.
With this collapse, the territory of
Caer Celemion
to the east is now totally isolated, and
Dumnonia is cut off
from any overland contact with other surviving British
territories. Gwent and
Pengwern now form the
western frontier against further Saxon advances. The
Hwicce
take over the territory and eventually push its borders north into
Worcestershire, at the expense of Pengwern. |
590 - 613 |
Keretic / Keredic / Ceredig |
Probably the same
Ceretic as in Elmet. |
580 |
Ebrauc
(York) falls to the Angles of
Deira. It
is a major blow to British hopes of regaining control of the country and
blots out at least two and-a-half centuries of Christian worship in one
of the British Church's key bishoprics. It seems likely that, if he exists,
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Archbishop Tadioceus of York flees the city with the
rest of the nobility, holding his title as an exile, perhaps from
Elmet. |
595 |
The Annales Cambriae
records the death of Dynod of
Dunoting in battle against the
Bernicians. He is probably the
last British ruler of the Pennines (unless the remnants of the territory are
absorbed into North Rheged).
His family are forced to flee to
Powys, including his second son,
the famous bard, Aneirin, while another son, Deiniol, is already in
Gwynedd as the British Church's
first bishop of Bangor.
By this time the Deiran
and Bernician
Angles
are pushing far into British territory, and the
Iclingas
are expanding to the south with only
Elmet and
Cynwidion
holding out in this region as enclaves until 616-617, and
South Rheged
until about 635. |
603 |
The first meeting between the
Roman
Church in the form of St Augustine of
Canterbury, and the Celtic
Church (the descendant of the former British Church of the
Roman
period) takes place. It is arranged when Æthelbert of the
Cantware uses the
Hwicce as intermediaries, and
the meeting goes favourably for Augustine.
A second meeting is quickly arranged, although perhaps not in the same year.
This takes place at Abberley in Worcestershire, probably close to the border
between the Hwicce and Pengwern.
It is attended by seven bishops of the Celtic Church, along with many
learned monks, mainly from Bangor-is-Coed (in Pengwern). The meeting ends in
disappointment for the Roman envoy, with no agreements of cooperation or
unity being reached between the two churches, especially in regard to the
important question of the calculations for Easter and evangelising the pagan
English. |
c.600 - 610 |
The territory of
Caer Celemion
is destroyed, probably by Ceawlin of the
West Seaxe. It is the last
British-held territory south of London and east of Dorset to fall. The town
of Calleva Atrebatum is abandoned and its wells are filled in to prevent its
citizens from returning.
|
c.610 - 630 |
Pressure from
the Ciltern Saetan to the south and the
Middil Engle to the north forces the
kingdom of Calchwynedd into collapse around this time. The territory is subjugated by the
rapidly growing power of the kingdom of
Mercia, which in this
period often shows signs of being partially British itself,
either in its early ancestry in Britain or in its choice of allies and the
people who probably form a good percentage of the population. |
613 |
After Keretic, the high kings are dominant only in
Wales and surviving British western territories.
However, even contact with territories such as
Dumnonia,
Elmet, and
Gododdin are
becoming tenuous, as the lines of communication are cut. In the first half
of the seventh century, the whole of northern Britain is lost, including
South Rheged
around this time, cutting off
Alt Clut,
Gododdin, and Galwyddel. |
613 - 625 |
Cadvan
/ Catamanus |
King of
Gwynedd. |
|
617 |
Cadwallon
(and probably his father) already holds a claim on the crown of
Deira as part of his domains.
He now apparently includes
Elmet in this claim, following
the kingdom's conquest by Edwin of Deira. |
625 - 634 |
Cadwallo
/ Cadwallon ap Cadfan |
King of
Gwynedd. Claimed the
Deiran crown, including
Elmet. |
|
633 - 634 |
Uniquely, perhaps, Penda of
Mercia allies himself not to other
English kingdoms but to
the Brito-Welsh of the west Midlands and
Wales. In this year, already
working in alliance with Cadwallon, Penda kills Edwin of Bernicia
and
Deira. It seems that, up until
this great victory, Penda is the junior partner in the alliance, but
following Cadwallon's death in 634 he holds all the cards and is senior
partner in the alliance with Pengwern. |
634 - 664 |
Cadwalader |
King of
Gwynedd.
Last high king of Britain. |
664 |
Cadwaladr is probably killed by the great plague that hits the country.
There is no obvious candidate to replace him, and such is the extent of the
loss of territory over the past century that there is no longer a 'British'
Britain over which to claim any high kingship. Instead, the rival
Anglo-Saxon Bretwaldaship
takes precedence. A revised form of the British high kingship later emerges
in medieval Wales, but only
after centuries of internecine rivalry to work out just who qualifies as a
'prince of Wales'. |
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