European Kingdoms

Rome

Rome was founded as a city state by the legendary Romulus on 21 April 753 BC. After his death, the region was drawn under Etruscan rule. The Etruscans governed the Italian Peninsula to the north of Rome, and ruled Rome as the southernmost of a chain of semi-independent city states. The Etruscans became dominant from the mid-ninth century BC, and were at the height of their power during the eight to seventh centuries BC.

Latin Kings

The Indo-European Latins are popularly held to have been conquered by Dardanian refugees from the Trojan Wars who fled Troy when the Mycenaean Greeks took it in about 1183 BC. Most of the names are legendary, but in all probability the people actually existed.

fl c.1176 BC

Latinus I

Latin leader of Latium.

fl c.1176 BC

Turnus

Latin leader of the Rutulians. Killed by Aeneas.

fl c.1176 BC

Evander

Latin leader of Pallanteum. His son, Pallas, killed by Turnus.

c.1183 - 1176 BC

Aeneas and his Dardanian followers wander for seven years (travelling via Carthage) before reaching Italy. Welcomed by Latinus, Aeneas fights the first Italian War against Turnus and his allies - most of the other Latin tribes. Aeneas is aided by the Etruscans, and an aged king of Pallanteum (within present-day Rome), named Evander also offers aid to Aeneas, sending a force under the leadership of his son, Pallas.

After the war, Aeneas marries the daughter of Latinus, Lavinia, and founds Alba Longa (Lavinium, unlocated by archaeologists), the principal Latin city until the founding of Rome.

c.1176 - ? BC

Aeneas (I)

Allowed to leave Troy by friendly Mycenaean Greeks.

Ascanius

Son.

Silvius ('Born in the Woods')

Son. Founded the Silvian line which leads to Rhea Silva.

Aeneas II Silvius

Son.

Latinus II Silvius

Son.

Alba Silvius

Son.

Atys Silvius

Son.

Capys Silvius

Son.

Capetus Silvius

Son.

Tiberinus Silvius

Son. Drowned in River Albula. River renamed Tiber after him.

Agrippa Silvius

Son.

Romulus I Silvius

Son. Struck by lightening.

Aventinus Silvius

Son. Buried on a hill which was named Aventine after him.

Proca Silvius

Son.

Numitor

Son. Has a daughter, Rhea Silva.

Amulius

Brother. Dethroned Numitor.

Numitor

Restored by Romulus & Remus.

753 - 716 BC

Romulus

Son of Rhea Silva.

753 BC

Romulus founds the city state of Rome.

716 BC

Rome falls under Etruscan rule. The city of Alba Longa is now secondary to Rome, and is also under the domination of the Etruscan kings of Rome.

Etruscan Kingdom of Rome
716 - 509 BC

The Etruscans were the dominant culture in Central and Northern Italy, rising to prominence between circa 850-750 BC. They subdued and dominated the Latin Romans for two centuries.

716 - 672 BC

Numa Pompilius

First Etruscan king.

672 - 640 BC

Tullus Hostilius

Voted king. Fell ill during a plague.

According to Livy, two dictators rule in the former key Latin city of Alba Longa during the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Gaius Cluilius dies in a war against the Etruscan-led Romans and is succeeded by Mettius Fufetius. He is executed by Tullus Hostilius for treachery.

640 - 616 BC

Ancus Marcius

Grandson of Numa. Built the port of Ostia.

616 - 578 BC

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

Murdered.

c.600 BC

Tarquinius Priscus drains the swampy area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills. This marketplace expands along with Rome and eventually became the centre of all things political, religious, and commercial in the ancient world.

578 - 534 BC

Servius Tullius

Son-in-law of Lucius. Assassinated by Lucius Superbus.

534 - 509 BC

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (The Proud)

Last Etruscan king. Died 495 BC.

509 BC

Etruscan rule is thrown out by a Latin insurrection. The Etruscans continue to fight the Latins for some years during the sixth century, but eventually they fade under increasing Latin domination and by the first century BC are almost completely Romanised.

Republic of Rome
509 - 28 BC

509 - 28 BC

Two Consuls are elected each year to govern Rome (with some breaks) alongside the Senate, over which they preside. Dictators (Latin for 'one who dictates' (orders) - also known as the Praetor maximus, the supreme Praetor, or magister populi, master of the people, are elected to temporary office (usually a six month term) during times of emergency.

501 BC

Dictatorship of Titus Larcius

Member of an Etruscan family.

501 BC

Titus Larcius commands against the thirty Latin cities, which have sworn to reinstate Tarquin in Rome.

477 BC

Rome fights the Etruscan city of Veii.

458 BC

Dictatorship of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus

Elected for 16 days to rescue Minucius' trapped army.

439 BC

Dictatorship of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus

Called for a second time from his farm to defend Rome.

428 BC

Rome fights the Etruscan city of Veii again.

406 - 396 BC

Dictatorship of Marcus Furius Camillus

One of five terms as dictator.

396 BC

The Etruscan city of Veii falls to Rome after a ten year seige.

391 - 376 BC

Consuls are replaced by military tribunes. Rome comes under attack from the Celts.

389 BC

Brunnus and the Celts sack Rome, with only the Capitoline Hill standing out against them. The citizens of Rome are forced to pay a thousand pounds in gold to buy off the Celts (a pretty low sum by Roman standards, which perhaps outrages them more than the city being sacked in the first place). Rome afterwards takes steps to ensure the city is never again placed in such a position.

370 - 367 BC

Consuls are replaced by military tribunes.

351 BC

A truce which lasts for forty years is agreed between Rome and Etruscan Tarquinia.

342 BC

Dictatorship of Marcus Valerius Corvus

333 BC

Dictatorship of Publius Cornelius Rufinus

325 - 309 BC

The nearby Marsi people ally themselves with Rome.

324 BC

Dictatorship of Lucius Papirius Cursor

315 BC

Dictatorship of Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus

310 BC

War between Rome and Etruscans allied to the Samnites takes place.

308 BC

Etruscan Tarquinia capitulates.

304 - 90 BC

The Marsi reaffirm their alliance with Rome.

301 BC

Dictatorship of Marcus Valerius Corvus

Second term.

292 BC

Dictatorship of Appius Claudius Caecus

285 BC

Dictatorship of Appius Claudius Caecus

280 BC

Etruscan Vulci falls to Rome.

273 BC

The Romans found their first colony in Etruscan territory.

268 BC

Rome gains the region around modern Rimini.

265 - 264 BC

Volsinies, the last independent Etruscan city, falls to Rome and is destroyed.

264 - 241 BC

The First Punic War erupts between Rome and Carthage. Rome learns how to fight at sea and eventually gains overall victory. Carthage loses Sardinia and the western section of Sicily.

249 BC

Dictatorship of Aulus Atilius Caiatinus

Following the disaster of Drepana.

221? - 219 BC

Dictatorship of Fabius Maximus

218 - 202 BC

The Second Punic War is fought against Carthage. Rome is aided by Etruscan forces, but Italy is invaded by Hannibal Barca and a Roman army is massacred at the Battle of Cannae, killing 60,000. Rome also finds time to fight the First Macedonian War in an attempt to tie down possible Macedonian reinforcements for Carthage. At the end of the war the post of dictator is outlawed, replaced by powers for the two consuls which allows them to take any action to defend the republic.

217 BC

Dictatorship of Fabius Maximus

Nicknamed Cunctator (the Delayer) for his tactics.

203 BC

Dictatorship of Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus

200 - 196 BC

Rome fights the Second Macedonian War, thanks to apparently false claims by Pergamum and Rhodes of a treaty between Macedonian and the Seleucid empire.

159 BC

Rome conquers the Greek kingdom of Epirus.

149 - 146 BC

The Third Punic War. After a siege which conquers Carthage, Rome takes brutal action to obliterate the city and its people.

146 BC

The Achaean League is dissolved by Rome and Greece is annexed to the Roman province of Macedonia.

133 - 129 BC

Rome is bequeathed the Anatolian kingdom of Pergamum, but has to send two armies in 131 and 129 to secure the claim.

90 - 89 BC

The Marsi fight the Social War against Rome in which Rome's allies fight for, and are eventually granted, citizenship. In 95 and 89 BC Rome secures the independence of Cappadocia in the face of attempted control by Pontus.

89 - 82 BC

Civil War in Italy. Sulla recaptures Rome in 82 BC and ends the war. A new form of dictatorship is created in which there is no time limit for the office.

82 - 79 BC

Dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Resigns when Senate is once more in control of Rome.

80 BC

Sulla devastates the Etruscan cities; the Etruscans become Roman citizens.

73 - 71 BC

A slave named Spartacus leads a slave revolt in southern Italy. His numbers swelled by more and more slaves joining his forces in what is known as the Third Servile War, he is eventually defeated by Crassus in battles at Brundisium, Lucania, and Silarus. Over six thousand slaves are crucified along the Via Appia. Pompey gains the final victory over the remaining slave body and the credit in Rome, while Crassus is almost forgotten.

68 - 63 BC

Phoenicia becomes a Roman possession in 68 BC, while in 64 BC, Lycia follows suit. The following year, the Seleucids fall to Rome, and Syria and areas of the Levant become Roman provinces.

60 - 53 BC

Caesar, Pompey and Crassus

First Triumvirate.

55 - 54 BC

Julius Caesar conducts two 'reconnaissance' expeditions to Britain and encounters fierce resistance, as well as some allies in the various tribes there. A year after his return, in 53 BC, Rome suffers one of the worst defeats in its history when the politician Crassus leads an army to annihilation against the Parthians at Carrhae (Harran)

49 - 46 BC

Civil War erupts between Julius Caesar and Pompey as the former crosses the Rubicon. Caesar wins the war at the Battle of Thapsus and is appointed dictator of Rome for ten years. The surviving Pompeians, including Cato the Younger, flee to Utica. One of Caesar's first projects is the building of Colonia Junonia on the site of ancient Carthage. By about 40 BC it becomes the capital of the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis.

49 - 44 BC

Dictatorship of Caesar

Assassinated.

45 BC

Caesar is appointed dictator of Rome for life.

44 BC

Julius Caesar is assassinated on the Ides of March in a conspiracy led by Cassius and Brutus. Afterwards, Caesar's consular colleague, Mark Antony, passes a 'lex Antonia' which abolishes the dictatorate and expunges it from the constitutions of the Republic. Antony is forced to share power with Caesar's nephew and adopted son, Octavian, and General Marcus Lepidus, definitely the lesser of the three in terms of power.

43 - 31 BC

Octavian, Antony and Lepidus

Second Triumvirate.

31 - 27 BC

Octavian

In sole control of Rome.

31 - 30 BC

Following Octavian's defeat of Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Egypt becomes a province of Rome upon the death of Cleopatra a year later.

27 BC

The office of dictator is offered to Caesar Augustus (Octavian), who wisely declines it. He opts instead for the power of a tribune and consular imperium without holding any office other than that of Pontifex Maximus and Princeps Senatus - a politic arrangement which leaves him as functional dictator without having to hold the controversial title or office itself. The Empire is born.

Empire of Rome
27 BC - AD 476

While several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from republic to empire, including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the victory of Caesar's heir, Octavian, at the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus (16 January 27 BC), it is usually the latter that is accepted as a starting point.

Some of the names listed here were never accepted as emperors in Rome, often merely leading revolts in some of the provinces and holding regional power for a time. These names are usually backed in a darker shade to separate them. Of course, if they had managed to defeat their opposition then they would have achieved legitimacy, which sometimes was the case.

(Additional information taken from The Oxford History of England: Roman Britain, Peter Salway.)

Julian-Claudian Dynasty

These five rulers were linked through marriage and adoption into the patrician families of the Julii and Claudii. The reigns of all five were remarkably similar, each expanding the Roman empire's territory and initiating largescale building projects. All were resented by the senatorial class, despite their popularity with the people, and there was constant plotting to restore the Republic.

27 BC - AD 14

Caesar Augustus (Octavian)

Adopted son of Caesar.

27 BC

Octavian, son of Atia Balba Caesonia, niece of Julius Caesar, ends a century of civil wars and give Rome an era of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness, known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace, which lasts for over 200 years.

17 BC

Rome takes Cappadocia as a province.

14 - 37

Tiberius

Adopted son of Octavian. By birth a Claudian.

37 - 41

Gaius (Caligula)

Son of Augustus' adopted grandson. A despot.

41

Early in the year, Caligula's brief reign is ended by a plot engineered by army officers and senators.

41 - 54

Claudius

Uncle. Assassinated by Agrippina, mother of Nero.

43

Rome invades Britannia and begins the conquest of the island.

c.AD 50

There is an invasion across the Rhine into the empire by a Teutonic people whom the Romans name the Chamavi [tribe or group] of the Franci.

54 - 68

Nero

Deposed by Senate and suicided to avoid the Roman mob.

54 - 59

Julia Agrippina (Minor)

Mother. Self-appointed regent. Killed on Nero's orders.

66 - 73

The First Jewish Uprising in Judah leads to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. In 67, the Nabataeans send an army to aid General (later emperor) Vespasian in the siege.

68

Nero's fall from grace death marks the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of emperors.

Soldier Emperors

The 'Year of the Four Emperors' witnessed the first time the imperial selection system broke down, as various legions proclaimed their own emperors. The process was started by the Senate voting Galba emperor at the same time as they declared Nero a public enemy. Eventually, the effective Vespasian secured the throne.

68 - 69

Galba

Spanish general who marched on Rome. Murdered.

69

Galba, a former governor of Africa Proconsularis, begins his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies, but he swiftly demonstrates his lack of ability to wield supreme power and is assassinated.

69

Otho

Popular with the soldiers. Overthrown.

69

Vitellius

Proclaimed on the Rhine. Executed by Vespasian.

Flavians

Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his troops and returned from Judea to take control of Rome. He ended the period of uncertainty in the empire and effectively saved Rome. He authorised the demolition of Nero's fabulous Golden House in the centre of Rome and began construction of its replacement, the Colosseum.

Although the period of the Flavians was relatively short, the name proved popular, and was a common component of Roman names for generations.

69 - 79

Vespasian

General in his 60s. Former governor of Africa Proconsularis.

79

Catastrophe hits Southern Italy when Mount Vesuvius explodes with violent strength to bury the cities of Herculanium and Pompeii.

79 - 81

Titus

Son.

81 - 96

Domitian

Brother. Assassinated thanks to his increasing paranoia.

89

Antoninus Saturninus

Usurper army general.

89

Two legions of Domitian's armies in Germania Superior at Mogontiacum (Mainz) revolt under L Antoninus Saturninus, for reasons that are largely lost to history (thanks to the later destruction of Saturninus' personal documents). It is quite plausible that the officers involved rebel against Domitian's rather strict moral policies Whatever goal Saturninus has is completely unknown and there seems to be little indication of a plan. The governor of Germania Inferior puts down the revolt before it seemingly even begins.

Adoptive Emperors

The election to the purple of Nerva, an elderly, moderate and capable man, saw the start of the 'five good emperors' golden age. The adoptive emperors are so named because they adopted their successors during their lifetime, ensuring a smooth and peaceful transfer of power upon their deaths. The system collapsed when Marcus Aurelius had to chose between an effective heir and his own unstable son.

96 - 98

Marcus Cocceius Nerva

Adopted Trajan, a commander of the Rhine forces.

98 - 117

Trajan

Increased the empire's borders to their greatest extent.

101 - 106

Trajan fights two Dacian Wars (the area of the Balkans up to Transylvania) in 101-102 and 105-106 as the Dacians are proving to be an obstacle to Roman expansion in that area. In 106, the Nabataeans are conquered and their capital city becomes the capital of the province of Arabia Petraea.

117

He dies on the way back from conquests in Mesopotamia against the Parthians (in which Harran is captured), which the consolidating Hadrian disavows.

117 - 138

Hadrian

An unconventional emperor.

132 - 135

The Second Jewish Uprising in Judah is led by Simon Bar Kochba against Roman rule.

136

Hadrian consolidates the empire's borders. Two years before his death he adopts a consul by the name of L Aelius Caesar to be his successor, but the latter's premature death forces Hadrian to select again. Antoninus Pius has a reputation for honesty and devotion to duty.

138 - 161

Antoninus Pius

Died of fever in Etruria.

140 - 143

Never one to willingly make war, Antoninus is forced to order the reoccupation of the British territories of lowland Scotland and begin construction of the Antonine Wall in order to resolve the problem of barbarian pressure.

161 - 180

Marcus Aurelius

Aurelius and Lucius Verus are the empire's first joint rulers.

161 - 169

Lucius Verus

Died early.

166 - 169

The First Invasion of German peoples across the Danube takes place, penetrating into Italy and forcing Marcus Aurelius to spend the rest of his life campaigning in the Danube region to contain the problem.

175 - 176

Avidius Cassius

Army general.

176

Cassius leads a revolt against Marcus Aurelius in the east, but a campaign against him swiftly ends his ambitions.

177 - 180

Commodus

Son of Marcus Aurelius. Totally unfit to rule Rome.

180

Marcus Aurelius dies while conducting what would have been a final campaign against the most dangerous barbarian tribes across the Danube. As it is, the problem is never fully resolved thereafter, and Rome gains one of the most worthless of emperors.

180 - 192

Commodus

Assassinated by arrangement of the praetorian prefect.

Unassociated Emperors

Pertinax was prefect of Rome at Commodus' death and was proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefect who arranged to have Commodus assassinated. Unfortunately he was a strict disciplinarian whose approach to politics ruffled a lot of feathers and began a period of instability and military mutiny.

193

P Helvius Pertinax

Former governor of Britain and prefect of Rome. Assassinated.

193

The same praetorian prefect who had arranged the murder of Commodus also causes his men to assassinate Pertinax. In perhaps the most cynical act in their history they put the throne up for auction to the highest bidder. At the same time three separate provinces proclaim their own emperors and the seeds are sown for civil war.

193

Didius Julianus

An immensely wealthy senator. Murdered in the palace.

193 - 194

Pescennius Niger

Governor of Syria.

193

Decimus Clodius Albinus

Governor of Britannia.

193

Septimus Severus

Governor of Pannonia.

193

Severus marches on Rome and the praetorians declare for him. Julianus is dispatched only six months after the death of Commodus. Severus, now fully in command, offers Albinus the junior title of Caesar.

Severans

Septimus Severus, of North African origin, was proclaimed emperor by his legions in Pannonia at almost the same moment as the military in Syria proclaimed Niger and the troops in Britain proclaimed Albinus. Severus showed Machiavellian shrewdness in his dealings with his rivals, while his eldest son, Caracalla, was ruthless in dispatching any opposition to his own claim to succeeding his father. Both his father-in-law and his brother, Geta, were his vicims.

193 - 211

Septimus Severus

Died 4 February.

193 - 197

Decimus Clodius Albinus

Caesar. Defeated and killed by Severus.

196 - 197

After an attempt to have Albinus assassinated fails, Severus marches on Gaul to meet Albinus' forces. The final battle is a close-run affair, but Albinus does not survive the encounter.

209 - 211

Severus leads a campaign against the Caledonii in person, making his headquarters (and the centre of the Roman empire for three years) at Eboracum (York), but ill-health means he has to hand control of its day-to-day conduct to Caracalla.

198 - 217

Antoninus (Septimius Bassianus Caracalla)

Son. Became Augustus upon the death of his father.

209 - 212

Antoninus (Publius Septimius Geta)

Brother. Co-emperor. Murdered by Caracalla.

217

Caracalla dies a rather mysterious death while visiting a temple of Luna with only his personal bodyguard, which includes his prefect of the Praetorian guard, Macrinus. Perhaps not coincidentally, Macrinus had recently found his name on one of Caracalla's death lists.

Unassociated Emperors

By 11 April 217, Macrinus had proclaimed himself emperor. He was the first man to become so without membership in the senatorial class and was the first emperor of Moorish descent. Macrinus also nominated his son, Diadumenianus, as Caesar (the junior rank) and successor and conferred upon him the name 'Antoninus', so connecting him with the relatively stable reigns of the Antonine emperors.

217 - 218

Macrinus

Of Mauritanian origin.

218

Diadumenianus (Caesar)

Son.

218

Severan family plotting paves the way for the proclamation of one of their own as emperor. Macrinus, deserted by many of his allies, is defeated in battle, flees, and is captured and executed. His son is also later executed.

Severans

Macrinus reinforced the notion of the soldiers as the true brokers of power in the third century empire and highlighted the importance of maintaining the support of this vital faction. His reign was followed by another seventeen years of rule under Severan emperors.

218 - 222

Antoninus (Elagabalus)

Son of Caracalla's female cousin.

222 - 235

Severus Alexander

Cousin. Murdered for failing to fight the German tribes.

232 - 233

Just as the newly dominant Sassanid Persians conquer areas of Mesopotamia (including Harran) in 232, the Alemanni make the first of their invasions of the empire in 233.

before 232

Uranius Antoninus

Usurper cited by Zosimus either here or in 253.

before 232

Uranius was apparently active during the reigns of Elagabalus or Alexander Severus. However, it is possible that Zosimus confused this usurper with L Julius Aurelius Sulpicius Severus Uranius Antoninus, who reigned in 253. What happened to him after he staked his claim to the throne is not known, but can be guessed.

Soldier Emperors

The murder of Severus Alexander ended the principate system set up by Augustus and began a period of chaos in which usurper after usurper gained and lost the imperial throne as palace plot, mutiny, and murder created a climate that elevated no less than seventeen would-be emperors to the purple.

235 - 238

Maximinus Thrax

A Thracian soldier who rose through the ranks.

235

Maximinus (Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus) is conspicuous for being the first barbarian to wear the imperial purple and the first emperor never to set foot in Rome. During his reign he faces various threats and plots against him, and the year 238 is remarkable as one which has no less than six rival emperors.

238

Gordian I (the Elder)

Proclaimed in Africa. In power for three weeks.

238

Gordian II

Son. Proclaimed co-emperor at the same time as his father.

238

Both Gordians die in the province of Africa when the governor of the neighbouring province of Numidia marches against them and kills Gordan II. His father commits suicide upon hearing the news. As the Senate had supported the Gordians, they elect two of their own number to protect them against Maximinus' retribution.

238

Balbinus

Elected by Senate.

238

Pupienus (Maximus)

Elected by Senate.

238 - 244

Gordian III

Elected Caesar by Senate under pressure from Roman mob.

238

Maximinus marches on Rome but his troops, suffering from famine and disease, and bogged down in an unexpected siege of the city, which had closed its gates when they approached, become disaffected. In April the Praetorian guards in Maximinus' camp assassinate him, his son and his chief ministers and place their heads on poles to carry them into Rome. The Senate elects the thirteen year-old Gordian III, grandson of Gordian I, as emperor.

240

Sabinianus

Usurper in Africa. Defeated by the governor of Mauritania.

244 - 249

Marcus Julius Philippus 'the Arab'

Praetorian prefect who may have murdered Gordian.

247 - 249

Phillipius (Casear)

Son of Phillipius the Arab. Murdered at the age of 11.

244 - ?

Priscus

Ruler of the East in Philip's name (Rector Orientis).

248 - 249

Tiberius Claudius Pacatianus

Usurper on Danube frontier. Quickly crushed.

248

Marcus Jotapianus

Usurper in the East. Put down by Priscus.

249?

Marcus Silbannacus

Usurper in Rome in c.249 or 253.

c.249

Sponsianus

Usurper on the Danube frontier. Of dubious existence.

249 - 251

Decius

Proclaimed by Danube legions. Killed at the Battle of Abrittus.

249

Decius marches on Rome and defeats Philip the Arab in battle. Philip's son is murdered in Rome when the news arrives there.

250

Julius Valens Licinianus

Usurper in Rome with Senate backing.

251

Herennius Etruscus

Son of Decius. Co-emperor. Killed at the Battle of Abrittus.

c.250

A group of Franks take advantage of the state of the empire and penetrate as far as Tarragona in modern Spain. They plague this region for about a decade before Roman forces subdue them and expel them from Roman territory.

251

Titus Julius Priscus

Usurper in Macedon with Gothic protection.

251

Hostilianus / Hostilian

Son of Decius. Accepted as Caesar by Gallus. Killed by plague.

251 - 253

Trebonianus Gallus

Governor of Moesia Superior proclaimed by his troops.

251 - 253

Volusianus

Son. Murdered.

253

Marcus Aemelius Aemilianus

Governor of Moesia Spr & Pannonia proclaimed by troops.

253

Upon Aemilianus' approach to Rome, both Gallus and his son are murdered by their own troops.

253?

Marcus Silbannacus

Usurper in Rome in c.249 or 253.

253

Valerian marches on Rome to avenge Gallus and sees Aemilianus assassinated by his own troops rather than offer battle to a more powerful army. The accession of Valerian and his son, Gallienus, as joint emperors marks the end of nearly two decades of chaos at the centre of the empire. It also comes just in time as pressure on the Roman frontiers both in the west and east turn into a series of massive invasions.

253 - 260

Valerian

Defeated & captured by Sassanid Persian Shah in 260.

253 - 260

Gallienus

Son. Joint emperor. Ruled alone from 260.

253 - 254

Uranius Antoninus

Usurper cited by Zosimus either here or before 232.

258

The Alemanni break into Italy in strength, requiring Gallienus (who is administering the west) to meet them and defeat them in battle at Milan.

260 - 268

Gallienus

Murdered in unclear circumstances.

258/260

Ingenuus

Usurper in Pannonia. Died during or after his defeat in battle.

260

Regalianus

Usurper in Pannonia. Defeated.

260

Crisis strikes the weakened empire, with two major splinter states (both backed in pink) forming in the same year. The Rhine frontier collapses completely at around the same time.

Postumus is Gallienus' lieutenant on the Rhine who murders the praetorian prefect, Silvanus, and Gallienus' own son Saloninus at Cologne and declares himself emperor. The Roman provinces in Germany, Gaul, Spain, and Britain and their armies support him. For the next thirteen years the whole of the north-western part of the empire is run as an independent but fully Roman state with its own series of emperors, and is called the 'Empire of the Gallic Provinces' (Imperium Galliarum / the Gallic Empire - 260-274).

The Palmyrene empire (260-272) encompasses the Roman provinces of Syria, Palestine, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor. It is ruled as little more than an expanded kingdom by Queen Zenobia for her infant son Vaballanthus with a capital at Palmyra.

260 - 268

Marcus Cassianus Latinius Postumus

Usurper in Gaul. Murdered while putting down an insurrection.

260 - 273

Zenobia of Palmyra

Usurper in Syria. Defeated, captured, and lived on in Rome.

267 - 273

Vaballanthus

Infant son. Died on the way to Rome.

260

Macrianus Major / the Elder

Elected by the Eastern army. Made his two sons emperors.

260

Balista

Prefect who supported Macrianus.

260 - 261

Macrianus Minor / the Younger

Son.

260 - 261

Quietus

Brother.

261

Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi

Sent by Macrianus to counter Valens. Killed by Valens.

261

Valens

Governor of Achaea. Killed by his own troops.

261

Mussius Aemilianus

Macrianus supporter in Egypt. Killed by a General Theodotus.

260 - 261

Quietus and Balista remain in the East and in Egypt to secure their rule, while Macrianus Major and Minor move to Thrace to counter Gallienus. Both are defeated and killed in battle, while Quietus is killed by Odaenathus of Palmyra.

Valens' troops, marching in defence of Gallienus, proclaim their commander emperor, and Piso's troops do the same with their commander. Piso is then killed by Valens, who is later killed by his own troops.

262

Memor

Usurper in North Africa. Prepared to rebel. Killed by Theodotus.

268

Manius Acilius Aureolus

Roman cavalry cmdr. Revolted and supported Postumus.

268 - 270

Claudius II Gothicus

Died of plague in January.

268 - 270

Victorinus

Successor to Postumus in Imperium Galliarum.

270

Quintillus

Brother of Claudius. Seized power. Killed or suicided.

270 - 275

Aurelian

Completed reuniting the empire. Murdered.

270 - 274

Beginning with Aurelian, a series of remarkable soldier emperors commences the process of reunifying and restoring the empire. Aurelian defeats the barbarians who had crossed the Danube and kills the leader of the Goths. This act begins a shift of power amongst the barbarian tribes.

270 - 274

Tetricus

Successor to Victorinus in Imperium Galliarum.

273 - 274

Tetricus II

Son. Caesar. Life (and senatorial rank?) spared by Aurelian.

271

Domitianus

Tried to rule Imperium Galliarum. Killed by Aurelian.

273

Firmus

Usurper in Egypt. Evidence for him is unreliable.

274

The Imperium Galliarum collapses when Aurelian defeats its military power in battle at Châlons. Tetricus surrenders and is permitted to pursue a useful and distinguished career in Roman life.

275

Ulpia Severina

Wife of Aurelian. Augusta since 274. Ruled during interregnum.

275 - 276

Marcus Claudius Tacitus

Elected by the Senate. Assassinated.

276

Marcus Annius Florianus

Half brother of Tacitus. Killed for failing to defeat Probus.

276 - 282

Marcus Aurelius Probus

Carried on the Roman recovery. Killed by his troops.

277

Vandals and Burgundians who had crossed the Rhine to invade the empire are defeated by Probus and are resettled in Britannia.

280 or 81

Julius Saturninus

Usurper in Syria. Killed by his own troops.

280 - 281

Proculus

Usurper in Gaul. Betrayed and handed over by Frankish allies.

280

Gallus Quintus Bonosus

Joint usurper. Hanged himself when defeated by Probus.

282 - 283

Marcus Aurelius Carus

Cmdr of Praetorian Gd. Probably died of natural causes.

283 - 284

Carinus (Caesar)

Son. Governed the west. Defeated by Diocletian.

283 - 284

Numerian (Caesar / Augustus)

Brother. Succeeded his father in the east. Died naturally.

283 - 285 or 286

Julianus Sabinus / Julian I

Usurper in Pannonia (possibly two similarly named usurpers).

Tetrarchs

Commander of Numerian's personal guard, Diocletian's sudden elevation marked the start of the so-called Late Roman world. Of humble provincial origin in Dalmatia, and originally named Diocles, he was marked as an arch reformer, yet he was also dedicated to Roman tradition.

One of his most remarkable reforms was the introduction of the 'Tetrarchy' in 293 when the empire was again under serious strain. Each of the two senior emperors, the 'Augusti', would rule the eastern and western halves of the empire, aided by their own junior 'Caesar'. The system worked as a college of four emperors. When one of the elder two died or retired, his colleague would also retire, the juniors would take their places, and would promote two Caesars of their own. Unfortunately it was not to work for very long.

284 - 305

Diocletian

Britannicus Maximus. Abdicated.

285

Diocletian appoints Maximianus, one of his officers, as his chief lieutenant with the title of Caesar. He also takes the title of Britannicus Maximus, and it seems reasonable to assume that a military success of some importance had been won in his name in Britannia, which lays within Maximianus' command. The following year, Maximianus is promoted to Augustus to act as co-emperor.

286 - 305

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus

Abdicated.

286 - 287

Carausius, a commander of low birth who had been impressive under Maximianus' command, is suspected of collusion with raiding barbarians. When Maximianus orders his execution he proclaims himself emperor and seizes the provinces of Britannia. In 289 he successfully defeats at least two attempts by Maximianus to dislodge him, revealing a level of weakness within the empire.

287 - 293

Marcus Mausaeus Carausius

Usurper in Britannia.

288 - 292

Gaul and Germany still presents problems to Rome. Maximianus is involved in heavy fighting on the Lower Rhine and also on the Upper Danube. Maximianus returns to take personal command on the Rhine in order to release Constantius for an attack on Britannia.

293

Constantius Chlorus, the western Caesar, retakes important sections of Carausius' Gallic territories and defeats his Frankish allies in Batavia. In Britannia, Allectus assassinates Carausius and assumes command himself.

293 - 305

Galerius

Caesar in the east.

293 - 305

Constantius I Chlorus

Caesar in the west.

293 - 296

Allectus

Usurper in Britannia. Former treasurer to Carausius.

296

Constantius launches a major invasion of Britannia. Constantius' division is delayed by bad weather, but another division, under the praetorian prefect Asclepiodotus, takes advantage of fog to avoid Allectus' ships stationed around the Isle of Wight, and lands near Southampton Water, where they burn their ships as a gesture of defiance and determination. Allectus is forced to retreat from the coast, but is cut off by another of Constantius' divisions and is defeated. Allectus himself is killed in the battle. In the same year, Rome loses its hold on the Upper Euphrates region which includes Harran.

296 - 297

Domitius Domitianus

Usurper in Egypt. Died in December.

297 - 298

Aurelius Achilleus

Possible usurper in Egypt. Could have succeeded Domitius.

303

St George, an officer of the Roman army (believed to have been born in Anatolia), is beheaded on 23 April on Diocletian's orders for refusing to renounce his Christianity. He is in Britannia when he hears that Christians are being persecuted by the pagan emperor, and returns to plead their case. Diocletian, in return, does all he can to persuade George to renounce Christianity, but without success (George becomes the patron saint of England, in place of Edward the Confessor, in the fourteenth century).

305 - 311

Galerius

Became Eastern Augustus upon Diocletian's retirement.

305 - 306

Constantius I Chlorus

Became Western Augustus upon Maximianus' retirement.

305 - 313

Maximinus Daia

Caesar in the east. Augustus from 311.

305 - 307

Flavius Valerius Severus II

Caesar in the west. Killed by Maxentius.

306 - 307

The year 306 heralds the confusing situation of having six emperors. When Constantius Chlorus dies at York in Britannia, Severus is promoted to Augustus by Galerius, while in Britannia the troops raise the popular Constantine.

Maxentius, the son of the retired emperor Maximianus, revolts at Rome and Galerius sent Severus to suppress him. Maxentius offers his father co-rule of the empire, and Maximianus accepts, regaining his title of Augustus. Severus' men desert him and Severus flees to Ravenna, later surrendering to Maximianus.

When Galerius himself invades Italy in 307 to suppress both Maxentius and his father, Maxentius has Severus killed. Galerian elevates Licinius as his replacement.

306 - 324

Constantine I the Great

Son of Constantius. Elevated by his troops in Eboracum.

306 - 312

Maxentius

Son of Maximianus, Revolted in Rome.

307 - 310

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus

Restored by Maxentius.

308 - 310

By 308, Maximianus realises that his role is just a cover for Maxentius' real power, and he rebels against his own son, marching upon Rome, but is beaten. Maximianus finds refuge with Constantine in Gaul, where in 310 he briefly declares himself emperor for a third time in rebellion against Constantine. Forgiven, he is later revealed to be plotting an assassination attempt. He commits suicide.

312

Maxentius is attacked by Constantine's army near Rome and defeated, with Maxentius himself drowning in the Tiber during the chaotic retreat of his forces.

308 - 324

Licinius

Western Augustus. Became Eastern Augustus in 313.

308 - 313

Licinius is elevated to emperor of the west by Galerius. In 311, upon Galerius' death, Licinius shares the entire empire with Maximinus Daia.

Licinius successfully defends himself from an attack by Maximinus in 313 (the Battle of Tzirallum, 30 April), forcing the latter to flee, eventually, to Tarsus, where he dies. Licinius becomes master of the east, allowing his brother-in-law, Constantine, to rule unrivalled in the west.

313

Constantine confers his favour on the Christian church with the Edict of Milan.

324

Sextus Martinianus

Caesar in the east. Raised by Licinius.

324

Constantine declares war against Licinius again and defeats his army at the Battle of Adrianople (3 July). After withdrawing, Licinius surrenders after the Battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18 September). He and his former co-emperor Sextus Martinianus are assassinated by Constantine for attempting to raise troops among the barbarians.

Second Flavian Dynasty

With all rivals in the former Tetrarchy removed, Constantine was now sole emperor and the second Flavian dynasty began. The immense personality and prestige of Constantine held the whole empire firm in his grip, but his death changed all that. The imperial family witnessed an outbreak of murderous squabbling and for three months there was no Augustus at all, and a major army revolt at Constantinople refused to accept any of the appointments to imperial rank that were proposed other than the sons of Constantine themselves. Eventually three brothers emerged to simultaneously hold the rank of Augustus, but even they squabbled.

324 - 337

Constantine I the Great

Now sole emperor.

325

On the rise in the three centuries following the death of Jesus in Judea, Christians are now in a position of strength, and serious conflict between them and the pagans of the empire arises, threatening to tear it apart. Constantine accepts Christianity as the religion of the empire and convenes the first ecumenical Christian council, confirming the position of the Pope.

330

Constantine dedicates his new capital, Constantinople, formally shifting Roman power away from Rome.

337

Constantine II emerges from the unsettled period following his father's death as the senior Augustus, controlling Britain, Gaul, and Spain - the Gallic Provinces. Constans controls Africa, Italy, and the Illyrian provinces, while Constantius II holds Constantinople and most of the east.

337 - 340

Constantine II

Son. Caesar since aged one month. Senior Augustus.

337 - 361

Constantius II

Brother. Eastern Augustus. Died of fever.

337 - 350

Constans I

Brother. Western Augustus from 340. Killed by Magnentius.

340

Constantine II objects to the attitude of Constans and launches an invasion of Italy. It is disaster: he is defeated and killed at Aquileia.

350

Vetranio (Vetriano)

Caesar. Accepted and then rejected by Constantius.

350 - 353

Magnentius

Usurper in the Imperial Gd units and controlled most of West.

351 - 353

Magnus Decentius

Caesar and probably brother.

353

One of the bloodiest battles in Roman history, Mursa Major in the Balkans, takes place between Magnentius and Constantius in 351, but it is following the former's defeat against Constantius at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in Gaul in 353 that Magnentius commits suicide by falling on his sword. Decentius subsequently hangs himself at Senonae. Constantius conducts a vicious witch hunt of Magnentius' supporters, notably in Britannia.

c.354 - 358

Carausius II

An unverified usurper in Britannia between these dates.

355 - 360

Julian the Apostate

Cousin. Elevated to Caesar by Constantius. A pagan.

355

Claudius Silvanus

Usurper in Gaul. Killed by bribed troops.

358

The Franks are accepted into the northern Roman empire by Julian the Apostate.

361 - 363

Julian

Raised to Augustus in Gaul. Died of wounds on campaign.

363 - 364

Jovian

Raised perhaps mistakenly and died of food poisoning.

364 - 375

Valentinian I

Raised in Nicaea. Western Augustus. Died of apoplexy.

364 - 378

Valens

Raised by his brother, Valentinian. Eastern Augustus.

365 - 366

Procopius (Prokop)

Usurper in Constantinople. Captured and executed.

367 - 383

Gratian

Son of Valentinian. Western Augustus. Assassinated.

372

In an act of imperial favour, an Alamannic king, Fraomar, is sent to Britannia as a military tribune to command a Roman unit of Alemanni cavalry which is already stationed on the island, as recorded by Ammianus.

372 - 375

Firmus

Usurper in Africa. Chose suicide over capture.

376 - 382

The Gothic War takes place in the Balkans, but its most notable episode is in 378. Valens ensures his name is never forgotten by being utterly defeated and then killed by the Visigoths at Adrianople.

375 - 392

Valentinian II

Brother. Proclaimed as an infant.

379 - 392

Theodosius I the Great

Raised by Gratian. Eastern Augustus.

383

Magnus Maximus takes advantage of the growing contempt for the failing Gratian by revolting in Britannia and invading Gaul with a large army. After being defeated near Paris, Gratian is deserted by his troops and is betrayed and delivered to one of the rebel generals, Andragathius, and is assassinated on 25 August. Valentinian II is forced out of Rome, and Maximus, now the senior Augustus in the west, sets up his capital at Augusta Treverorum (Treves, Trier). He becomes a popular emperor and is recognised by Theodosius.

383 - 388

Magnus Maximus

Usurper in Britannia. Executed.

384 - 388

Flavius Victor

Infant son. Murdered by Arbogast.

383 - 395

Arcadius

Son of Theodosius. Eastern Augustus.

387

Rome partitions Armenia between itself and Persia, gaining the western half. Magnus Maximus advances across the Alps to occupy Milan, forcing Valentinian to flee.

388

Magnus Maximus is defeated at the Battle of the Save by Theodosius and Valentinian, and retreats to Aquileia and surrenders there. Pleas for mercy are met with execution, although his wife and two daughters are spared and many of his descendants continue to occupy important positions. Andragathius is defeated near Siscia. Arbogast, the new magister militum of the Western Empire, personally defeats Maximus' son, and himself becomes the de facto ruler in the West.

While Theodosius is so occupied, there is an invasion of the Roman provinces of Germania and Belgia by Franks. Their warriors break through the limes, destroying farmlands and killing people around the city of Cologne, before retreating across the border with their booty. General Quintinus mounts a reprisal raid across the border but his troops are surrounded and beaten, and very few of them make it back.

392

With the murder or suicide of Valentinian II (probably caused by the Frankish magister militum Arbogast / Flavius Arbogastas), Theodosius, son of Theodosius the Elder who rescued Britannia from the Barbarian Conspiracy of 367, becomes sole emperor, the last emperor to rule both east and west.

Arbogast challenges Theodosius by raising an acquaintance, Eugenius, to Augustus in Rome. Theodosius responds by raising his own two year-old son, Honorius as Western Emperor, and marches on Italy, defeating his enemies at the Battle of Frigidus in 394 on the Italy-Slovenia border. The battle typifies a trend towards using increasing numbers of barbarian troops, especially in the west, where it lead to the weakening of the empire itself. Arbogast commits suicide and Eugenius is executed.

392 - 395

Theodosius I the Great

Died of a vascular disease.

393 - 395

Honorius

Son. Western Augustus aged nine.

392 - 394

Flavius Eugenius

Usurper in Rome. Executed.

395

The formal partition of the Roman empire into the Eastern and Western sections is undertaken by Honorious and Arcadian.

An official register of all the offices, other than municipal, which exist in the Roman empire at this time is compiled in the Notitia Dignitatum.

Western Emperors

The following Emperors from Honorius to Romulus Augustulus reigned in the West only. The Eastern Emperors continued to reign in Constantinople, the former city of Byzantium. The accession of Honorius and Arcadius was marked by a basic change in the role of the emperor. It affected east and west differently, and what happened is of major importance in comprehending what occurred subsequently in the two halves of the empire. Roman emperors after Theodosius were heads of state but no longer held effective power. This now fell into the hands of their chief ministers.

The change was complete in the west, but less so in the east where occasional emperors still took direct command. Perhaps the crucial difference was that in the east the ministers were usually civilians, but in the west they were almost without exception professional soldiers who tended to dominate their emperors. Due partially to this, and to a series of problems, Honorius' reign was characterised by the erosion of the Western Roman Empire and its territories. When he died he left an empire on the verge of collapse.

395 - 423

Honorius

A weak emperor controlled by Stilicho and Constantius III.

395 - 408

Flavius Stilicho

Vandal general and guardian. Executed.

395 - 408

For the first part of his reign, Honorius depends on the military leadership of his chief ministers, the Romano-Vandal general, Stilicho. Stilicho had been appointed as Honorius' guardian by the boy's father, shortly before his death. To strengthen his bonds to the young emperor, Stilicho marries his daughter Maria to him. Despite many successes, the imperial courtiers plot his death by trumping up charges against him. Stilicho is executed on 22 August 408. Flavius Constantius (later Emperor Constantius III) fills the void to become the power behind Honorius' throne.

397 - 398

Gildo

Usurper in Mauretania. Defeated under Stilicho's leadership.

398

Gildo is quickly suppressed, allowing Stilicho, probably upon his receipt of an appeal for help from Britannia (mentioned by Gildas), to send a force to quell barbarian raids there. However, a eulogy proclaimed in 400 for Stilicho's major success disappears just a month after it is released, and does not reappear.

405 - 406

Stilicho defeats Radagaisus, a barbarian leader of unknown origin, and his army of Goths, Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and Alans when they invade Italy in 405. The barbarians are incorporated into the Roman forces. Stilicho is aided by a second body of Alans, and Huns under the command of Uldiz.

Also in 406, the situation in Britannia is even more problematic. The British provinces are relatively isolated and constantly lack support from the empire, so the soldiers raise a series of their own claimants to the throne. While the first two are minor, Constantine III takes Gaul and Spain to add to his dominions.

406

Marcus

Usurper in Britannia. Killed by his own troops.

407

Gratian (Gracianus)

Usurper in Britannia. Killed by his own troops.

407 - 409

The Alans, Suevi and Vandals cross the Rhine at Mainz, largely destroying the city. Groups of Franks are already on the west bank of the Rhine, living in a confederation of small kingdoms which are tributary to Rome, and they attempt to fight them off. Despite the potential threat to Britannia, Gratian refuses to enter Gaul to fight the barbarians, so his troops kill him and elect Constantine III instead. Constantine quickly crosses into Gaul and secures the Rhine, making Arles, the recently relocated headquarters of the Gallic prefecture, his capital in 408.

407 - 411

Constantine III

Usurper in Britannia. Surrendered and was executed.

408 - 411

Constans

Son. Caesar. Executed by Gerontius.

408

Constantine sends his son, Constans, and the general Gerontius to Hispania to defeat the cousins of Honorius there and secure that province. Stilicho's forces in Italy rebel and he is executed. As a result of this and intrigues at the imperial court, plus the fact that Alaric's Visigothic army is roaming Etruria, Honorius is left powerless, and gladly accepts Constantine as co-emperor.

409

The Alans, Suevi and Vandals enter Hispania, disrupting Constantine's hold on his territory. Gerontius rebels against Constantine, raises Maximus as his own puppet emperor, and the following year advances into Gaul. At the same time in Britannia, Saxon raids convince the British and Armoricans to rebel and expel Roman officials, thus breaking ties with Rome that are never renewed, as Honorius is hardly in a position to take any action.

409 - 411

Maximus

Puppet usurper of Gerontius' in Hispania.

409

Priscus Attalus

Usurper in Rome with Visigoth support. Removed by Alaric.

410 - 411

As his enemies tighten the noose around him, Constantine attempts to attack Italy but is defeated and forced to retreat back to Gaul. Rome itself is sacked by Alaric's Visigoths after a collapse in relations. This affords Constantine no leeway however as, in 411, his forces facing Gerontius are defeated at Vienne, and Constans is captured and executed.

Constantine's praetorian prefect, Decimius Rusticus, abandons him only to be caught up in the Frankish and Burgundian supported rebellion of Jovinus. Gerontius besieges Constantine at Arles but the magister militum, the power behind Honorius' throne, and future emperor, Constantius III, puts Gerontius to flight (he commits suicide in Hispania) and captures and executes Constantine. Maximus takes refuge with barbarian allies in Hispania.

411 - 413

Jovinus

Usurper on the Rhine when Constantine died. Executed.

412 - 413

Sebastianus

Brother. Co-Augustus. Executed by the Visigoths.

413

Jovinus manages to insult Ataulf, king of the Visigoths, so the latter allies himself with Honorius and defeats Jovinus' troops. Sebastianus is executed. Jovinus flees and is besieged and captured in Valentia (Valence, Drôme). Shortly after he is executed. Honorius regains authority throughout Gaul and Spain, although he is still in a very weak position.

414

Priscus Attalus

Restored by Visigoths and then abandoned. Exiled by Rome.

418

A treaty is signed granting the Visigoths former Gallia Aquitania, the south-western portion of Gaul. At the same time, in the north of Gaul the Franks are increasing their influence. Following a further revolt in 417, the Armoricans are almost completely independent of Rome, but Auxerre on the Yonne is still under Roman control, as is the new capital of Roman Gaul at Arles, and the northern region centered on Soissons manages to retain a Roman government until 486. However, more and more often Rome has to use barbarian foederati to solve its problems rather than Roman troops.

421

Constantius III

Western Emperor 'under' Honorius. Not recognised by East.

423 - 425

Upon the death of Honorius (of dropsy), his patrician elevates Johannes, a senor civil servant, as emperor. Theodosius II in the East elevates the young Valentinian III first to Caesar, then to co-emperor as Augustus. In late 424, he sends Aëtius to the Huns to seek military help, but while Aëtius is away Johannes is betrayed and captured. Aëtius returns with sizable Hunnic army and comes to an agreement that establishes the political landscape of the Western Roman Empire for the next thirty years. The Huns are paid off and sent home, while Aëtius is promoted to magister militum.

423 - 425

John (Johannes)

Usurper in Rome. Captured and executed.

423 - 455

Valentinian III

Son of Constantius III. Murdered, perhaps due to Maximus.

423

Galla Placidia

Mother. Regent to her infant son.

432 - 453

Following a victory by Aëtius against the Franks the previous year (as well as in 428), the Huns now threaten the existence of the empire as, under Attila, they sweep across Europe.

433 - 454

Flavius Aëtius

Daco-Roman general and power behind the throne. Murdered.

439

The Vandals capture Carthage and create a kingdom of their own in the province of Africa, depriving Rome of vital foodstocks. The loss also deprives Rome of vital income, and the blow is once which contributes to a fading of Roman power over the next four decades, until it fades out of existence.

443

Rome loses Savoy (443) and Switzerland (450) to the Burgundians in a further settlement of barbarians. From around 440, Aëtius had apparently been pursuing a policy of extending the settlement of friendly (or defeated) barbarians within Gaul under treaty, rather than Roman reconquest. The former was certainly easier given the lack of resources.

451

To preserve their new domains, the Visigoths and Franks fight on the side of Rome to halt the advance of the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. Rome also has units of independent Armoricans on its side.

455

Petronius Maximus

Patrician. Great-grandson of Magnus Maximus.

455

Maximus is not recognised by the Eastern Empire. The enmity between Maximus and the magister militum, Aëtius, does much to lead to the gradual events that bring down the Western Roman Empire. Maximus plots and gets Valentinian III to kill Aëtius with his own hands. Aëtius' death marks the end to any true Western Roman chances of holding onto its empire.

Maximus rules for only 77 days before being stoned to death by a Roman mob while fleeing Genseric's Vandals on 24 May, after which the Vandals spend fourteen days sacking Rome.

An interpretation of Genseric's sack of Rome by Kark Briullov

455

Maximianus

Son of a bodyguard of Aëtius. Obscure.

455

Rome loses Cologne on the Rhine (which they had founded in 30 BC based on a Germanic tribal settlement) to the Franks, as a Frankish king sets up a royal court in the former Roman governor's palace.

455 - 456

Avitus

Magister militum. Encouraged by the Visigoths. Abdicated.

456 - 472

Ricimer / Ricomer

Suevi-Visigoth general and power behind throne. Died of fever.

465 - 472

Another Romano-barbarian, Ricimer (Ricomer), the son of a prince of the Suevi with a mother who was the daughter of Wallia, king of the Visigoths, secures a senior position in the Western Empire. Ricimer is the power behind the throne in 456-472 with a series of 'shadow emperors' to disguise his rule. This rule probably does not extend much beyond Italy's borders, as Gaul is already being governed by Romans (where they survive in power) for their own sake rather than for the imperial court.

457 - 461

Majorian

Raised by the regent, Ricimer. Not recognised by the East.

461

Majorian proves to be a little too popular after he expels the Visigoths and Burgundians from Roman cities in Gaul which they had occupied, and it is Ricimer who is behind him being forced to abdicate by his troops. He dies five days later. Ricimer raises Libius Severus as his replacement, seemingly as the perfect puppet, as Libius Severus appears to have absolutely no achievements. Majorian's magister militum per Gallias, Aegidius, is prevented from marching on Rome when Ricimer hires the previously defeated Visigoths and Burgundians, but Aegidius' troops remain loyal to him and Rome again loses its authority in northern Gaul until after the magister militum's death.

461 - 465

Libius Severus

Not recognised by Eastern Roman Empire. Died.

461 - 464

Aegidius

Ruled an independent Gallic command based at Soissons.

465 - 467

Interregnum lasting eighteen months. Ricimer commands without a figurehead until a highly distinguished candidate is forced on him by the East, determined to restore order in Gaul.

467 - 472

Anthemius

Perhaps the last able ruler. Executed by Ricimer.

469

The Visigoths have to fight a combined imperial army consisting of Romans, troops from Soissons under Comes Paulus, Burgundian foederati, and joint federate Britanni under Riothamus in 469. The Visigoths are victorious and extend their kingdom, cutting off both Soissons and Armorica from Rome.

472

After killing Anthemius, Ricimer dies of fever and his nephew, Gundobad of the Burgundians becomes Western Commander.

472

Anicius Olybrius

Not recognised by Eastern Roman Empire. Died naturally.

472 - 473

Interregnum. Gundobad of the Burgundians rules Rome until his father dies and he becomes joint king of the Burgundians along with his brothers. After elevating the Count of the Domestics to emperor he returns to the kingdom.

473 - 474

Glycerius

Not recognised by Eastern Roman Empire. Died after 480.

473

During Glycerius' brief reign, the Apennine Peninsula is threatened by both the Visigoths, living in southern Gaul and Spain, and the Ostrogoths, living in Dalmatia. When the Ostrogoths move into Gaul, Glycerius sends Roman troops into the area, preventing the armies of the two branches of Goths from joining forces against Rome and perhaps delaying the final end of the Western Empire for a few years.

However, this doesn't prevent the Eastern emperor, Leo I, from sending his own candidate to rule the remains of the Western empire. Upon the arrival of Julius Nepos, Glycerius immediately surrenders.

474 - 480

Julius Nepos

Relative of Eastern Augustus, Leo I.

475

On 28 August 475, the magister militum, Orestes, assumes control of the government at Ravenna, deposing Nepos and forcing him to flee to Dalmatia, where he reigns as emperor-in-exile until 480. His replacement is not recognised in the East which, along with Gaul, considers Julius Nepos to be the lawful emperor until his death in 480.

Since Orestes, a Germanic tribesman, cannot become emperor himself, he appoints his son Romulus, who had been born to his Roman wife. The boy is probably no more than ten years old.

475 - 476

Orestes

General and power behind throne. Killed.

475 - 476

Romulus Augustus (Augustulus)

Deposed to live a full life in a Villa retirement.

476

On 4 September, a Gothic general of the Roman army takes Ravenna, killing Orestes and deposing Romulus. By this time the western Roman army has ceased to exist, starved to death by a steady decrease in recruiting grounds and a severe lack of funds to pay those troops who still remained, so that they have drifted off. Also, the western emperor has such a small domain and such an ineffective role to play that the senate sends an embassy to the Eastern court with the imperial regalia, announcing that they feel no need for a new emperor at Ravenna and are happy to accept a single throne at Constantinople.

The Roman empire per se comes to an end in the West (although Odoacer's rule of Italy, as a Roman-elected general, could be considered a final extension, even though he, like other barbarian leaders in the west, calls himself rex). By this stage the empire only consists of Italy and the western Balkans, plus a west African province and Syagrius' northern Gallic province.

Gothic Kingdom of Italy (Heruli Confederation)
AD 476 - 493

The Heruli were a subject tribe of the Goths who had followed them and their later Ostrogoth division until the latter were destroyed by the Huns in 375. After the fall of the Huns in 454 they set up a short-lived Roman foederati kingdom of their own in in southern Slovakia near the Rivers March and Theiss.

These foederati were used by Orestes to depose Julius Nepos, but Orestes reneged on his promise of land for them, so Odoacer, with Eastern Roman backing, invaded Italy and killed Orestes. Odoacer ruled Italy as a continuation of the Roman state with the blessing of Eastern Emperor Zeno while his people gained the land they were promised in Italy.

After this kingdom was destroyed by the Langobards, Herulian fortunes waned. Remaining Heruls joined the Langobards and moved to Italy, and some of them sought refuge with the Gepids and then the Byzantines, who allowed them to resettle depopulated land in Moravia in 512. After one generation, this minor federate kingdom disappeared from the historical records.

476 - 493

Odoacer (Odovacar)

Roman Barbarian General. Patrician of Italy.

476 - 480

Odoacer asks the Eastern emperor Zeno to legalise his position as patricius of the Roman empire and Zeno's viceroy in Italy. Zeno does so, but insists that he recognise Julius Nepos as Western emperor. Odoacer agrees, and even issues coins in Nepos' name throughout Italy. A similar situation obtains in the Roman domain of Soissons in northern Gaul where the Roman general Syagrius mints coins in Nepos' name until his defeat in 486. By a collusion of convenience the Western Empire continues to exist after 476, but only as a legal formality.

A contemporary account by the historian Malchus states that former emperor Glycerius is involved in a plot that results in the murder of Juilius Nepos' in either April or May, most likely with Odoacer's cooperation. The surviving historical evidence to confirm this is meagre,

487

Odoacer destroys the Germanic tribe of the Rugians, who had formerly been subjugated by the Huns. The Lombards initially fill this vacuum, until they conquer much of Italy in 568, and then a new confederation, the Bavarians, forms in their place.

488 - 493

Theodoric leads a Barbarian Ostrogothic invasion of Italy, and after a truce is signed he kills Odoacer with his own hands, before setting up a Romanised Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy based at the imperial capital of Ravenna.