European Kingdoms

Etruscans
c.800 - 1st Century BC

It appears likely that the Etruscans were a pre-Indo-European people. They were probably indigenous to Italy, although one school of thought has them migrating from the eastern steppes immediately before their rise around 800 BC (unlikely, as they would have had to make their way through various Indo-European groups). According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, they were known in their own language as the 'Rasenna' (or 'Rasna'). They were called Etrusci or Tusci by the Romans and Tyrrhenoi or Tyrseni (Tuscans) by the Greeks. Herodotus claimed they were descended from Lydian colonists who landed in Etruria in the thirteenth century BC (perhaps following the collapse of the Hittite empire). Hellicanus of Lesbos ascribes their existence to the settlement of Pelasgian refugees, fleeing from Hellenic domination of Thessaly. Recent genetic studies seem to support these westward migration stories to an extent, claiming an unusual eastern heritage for the Etruscans that is found in no other Italian peoples.

Etruscan culture flourished in Etruria and the Po Valley in central and northern Italy from around 800 BC. It evolved to take over from the previous (and probably related) Villanova culture. Etruscan tribes established a series of independent city states which appear sometimes to have acknowledged the authority of a form of high king. The cities they created included Arimnus (Ariminum, modern Rimini), Arretium (its Roman name - the Etruscan name began with 'Arret-' but the remainder has been lost - modern Arezzo), Caisra (or Cisra, Agylia to the Greeks, Kisry to the Phoenicians, and modern Cerveteri), Clevsin, (modern Chiusi), Curtun (modern Cortona), Perusna (modern Perugia), Pupluna (or Fufluna, modern Populonia), Tarchna (modern Tarquinia), Velathri (or Felathri, modern Volterra), Veii, Velch (modern Volci), Velzna (Volsinii, modern Bolsena), and Vetluna (modern Vetulonia).

The Etruscans dominated northern Italy until their control over the Latin Romans on their southern border came to an end. Then, between 509-29 BC they were conquered piecemeal by the Romans and other tribal forces which bordered them. Rome always viewed them as former colonial masters, and it coloured the relationship between the two peoples. It also influenced the Roman distrust of and vehement opposition to kings in their own territories. Julius Caesar's fate was partially decided because some Romans feared that he wanted to establish himself as a king in the city (despite his murder, his adopted son went one better and established himself as emperor in all but name).

The names of some of the principle Etruscan city states are shown below, with their known rulers. Etruscan city names are shown first, and then the more familiar Latin version of the city's name and its modern equivalent in brackets. The earliest rulers are semi-legendary, while others are known from inscriptions but cannot be dated. Details about the Etruscans is sketchy, and their language is still a mystery today. Most records of them were made or preserved by the Romans, and were influenced by Roman views. Rulers of the cities were known as a lauchum, an elected position that was nevertheless for life. Rather than governing like medieval monarchs, the position seems to have been closer to that of the priest-kings of ancient Sumeria, tending to the secular administration of the city, its spiritual life, and also serving as a battle leader in times of trouble.

Etruscan Legendary Period
c.1150 - 800 BC

Herodotus claimed that the Etruscans were descended from Lydian colonists who landed in Etruria in the thirteenth century BC (perhaps following the collapse of the Hittite empire). This is largely reflected in the earliest 'Etruscan' names, which are of an improbably early date so that they can be tied with the Lydian kings. While this version is dismissed by modern historians, there is a leaning towards the idea that the Etruscans did migrate from the eastern Mediterranean, probably in the tenth century BC, and blended into the indigenous population, which at that time formed the Villanova culture.

Curiously, the island of Lemnos appears to bear close links to the Etruscans. The Lemnos Stele, dated to about 600 BC, is written in a language that is remarkably similar to that of the Etruscans. It was found in a warrior's tomb on the island along with artefacts that were similar to Etruscan equivalents. The implication is that a community on the island was related to the Etruscans, possibly Pelasgians (which would point to a shared origin for all Etruscans) or Etruscan pirates (which would mean they were merely adventurers out of Italy, and the Etruscan origin is still a mystery).

fl c.1176 BC

Mezentius

Exiled Etruscan king.

Lauses

Son. In Caisra (Caere, modern Cerveteri). Killed.

c.1176 BC

Mezentius is an Etruscan king who is exiled (apparently due to his cruelty according to a biased Roman account). He gains refuge in Latium where, according to Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas and his Dardanian followers have been welcomed by Latinus, leader of Latium. They are forced to fight the first Italian War against Turnus of the Rutulians and his allies, which are formed of most of the other Latin tribes. In battle with Aeneas, Mezentius receives a critical wound, but his son, Lauses, blocks the killing blow with his own body and dies. Tradition which predates Virgil has Mezentius surviving to outlive Aeneas.

An Etruscan sarcophagus of a man and his wife from the city of Caisra (modern Cerveteri)

c. early 1100s BC

Osiniu

In Clevsin (Clusium, modern Chiusi).

fl c.1100 BC

Tarchun / Tarchon

Legendary founder of Tarchna (Tarquinii, modern Tarquinia).

According to tradition, Tarchun and his brother, Tyrrhenus, are the Lydian founders of Etruria. The latter gives his name to the sea on Italy's western coast, and it is also another name for the Etruscans themselves. Tarchun founds the ancient city of Tarchna, one of the oldest Etruscan cities and, whatever the truth of this, the city certainly grows and eclipses its neighbours well before the advent of written records in Italy. The city's location is a strategic one, on an easily defended plateau that allows it to control the coastal plain and gives it access to the hinterland via the River Marta, which flows from Lake Bolsena past the northern flank of Tarchna into the Tyrrhenian Sea and provides a natural route of penetration. However, the city does not appear to emerge as a trading power until the eighth century BC, which places its rise at the very beginning of the Historical period.

Tyrrhenus / Tyrsenos

Brother.

Clusius

Son. Legendary founder of Clevsin (Clusium, modern Chiusi).

Crano

Legendary founder of Curtun (Corito, modern Cortona).

The foundation legend for the city of Curtun, which is compiled in the seventeenth century AD, states that Noah dwells in Italy for thirty years, finding it a hundred and eight years after the Flood (which event occurs in Sumeria). One of his descendants is Crano, who arrives at a hilltop and likes the location and clear air. He founds the city of Curtun on that hilltop 273 years after the Flood.

Unusually for the establishment of an origin story by the ancients, these early, legendary Etruscan rulers cannot be linked in any way to the later, historical rulers. They appear and disappear at the end of the twelfth century and bear no apparent relation to the later rulers of Etruscan city states. Unfortunately, the Etruscans leave no written records of their history. Their writings are concerned mainly with their religion.

Etruscan Historical Period
c.800 - 400 BC

From about 800 BC, Etruscan civilisation began to flourish, and eventually achieved regional dominance in a near-seamless break with the previous Villanova culture, which meant that the Villanova was gradually subsumed. The Etruscans also dominated the Marsi to the south, and edged out the Umbri to the east. The city of Tarchna (Tarquinii, modern Tarquinia) was one of the very earliest Etruscan cities to emerge and become powerful, hinting at an early date of settlement, perhaps one of the very first places that was truly Etruscan. There is certainly evidence of occupation at least as early as the ninth century BC, the early Iron Age, predating most other settlements and pushing its founding back into the late Villanovan period. The Etruscans of the eighth and seventh centuries were significantly influenced by eastern Greek culture, probably providing the basis for Herodotus' claim that they were descended from Lydian colonists.

c.800 BC

It is at this time that the city of Velathri (Roman Volaterrae, modern Volterra) is first settled, as noted by inscriptions on artefacts and stelae. It becomes an important and prosperous city with territory that reaches as far as the island of Elba in the west, and controls the important sea port of Pupluna (or Fufluna, modern Populonia). The city of Curtun (Roman Corito, modern Cortona) is also settled, although it is probably of Umbrian origin. Clevsin (Clusium, modern Chiusi) is another important city to be founded at this time, on the site of an earlier Umbrian settlement named Camars. As with Tarchna, the cities of Veii and Caisra are older, having been formed in the late ninth century by a melding together of clusters of Villanovan villages.

fl 8th century BC

Velsu

mid 8th C BC

Etruria is dominated by a collection of city states, twelve of which form the Etruscan League over time to defend the region against attacks by Greeks and Phoenicians, sometimes known as the Dodecapolis. There is no clear consensus of which cities form the league, but most of the best-known cities are generally included.

By this time, Etruscans dominate western central Italy, along with a wide swathe towards, but not quite reaching, the Veneti tribe (around modern Venice), and a stretch of territory along the western coast as far south as Naples. The city of Alalia dominates eastern Corsica, completing a semi-circle of territory that forms the border with the Phoenicians of Carthage and the Greeks of southern Italy and Sicily.

Two other Etruscan Leagues also form, one of which is Campania in the south, led by the city state of Capua (and containing what is now the city of Naples), and the Po Valley City States in the north-east, which include Adria (modern Atria) and Spina (in the Veneto region of modern Italy).

This map shows the greatest extent of Etruscan influence in Italy, during the seventh to fifth centuries BC, including the Campania region to the south

early 7th C BC

The city of Velathri (Roman Volaterrae, modern Volterra) is first settled by Etruscans. It quickly prospers thanks to its mineral wealth and trade in metals, and over the course of the next two centuries sets up trading links with Phoenician and Greek settlements such as Carthage and Syracuse to the south.

At least part of the Tolfa range has come under control of Caisra by now (passing out of the hands of Tarchna). By this time the villages of Caisra have already amalgamated into a single city. Before long, Caisra extends its power and ownership farther to the north and north-west, incorporating a number of considerable inland settlements. Moreover, it succeeds Tarchna as the principal Etruscan naval and sea-trading power, possessing no less than five identifiable ports at Alsium (modern Palo), Castellina, Fregenae (modern Fregene), Punicum (modern Santa Marinella), and Pyrgi (modern Santa Severa). Being the southernmost of the Etruscan maritime cities, Caisra is the nearest to the Greek markets and colonies of Campania, notably Cumae (modern Cuma), from whose alphabet the Etruscan script is adapted.

fl 7th century BC?

Sarina

In Perusna (Perusia, modern Perugia). Female lauchum.

Sarina is referred to on an inscription of the third or second century BC as 'fel Rina' (effectively, 'high queen'). The inscription contains a list of kings and queens and seems to be a history. Sarina may be the supreme authority of the Etruscan League, and is possibly responsible for uniting the twelve cities at a time when they are quarrelling amongst themselves. The position of high king or queen is known to be an electable one, which Livy describes as being decided at an annual meeting held in sacred grove of the Fanum Voltumnae at Velzna.

mid 7th C BC

The city of Rusellae (or Roselle) is founded around this time, and becomes one of the major Etruscan settlements. This proud city overlooks a valley which at this time is part of the Mediterranean, about eight kilometres (five miles) north-east of Grosetto, opposite the island of Corsica. Curving mud brick walls around the settlement can be dated to this period.  As this and other newer cities flourish, ancient Tarchna remains powerful and prosperous but is struggling to keep up with the energetic younger cities. The large and wealthy city of Veii is in its heyday, with a population of about 100,000 and a city that equals Athens in size. It also holds hegemony over the Latin town of Rome during this and the following century.

fl c.650 BC

Larthia?

In Caisra (Caere, modern Cerveteri). Female lauchum.

Discovered in 1836 in an unplundered state, the Regolini-Galassi Tomb at Caisra dates to about 650-625 BC. It dramatically reveals the full splendour of the Orientalising period of Etruscan civilisation, when Greek and Phoenician influences are at their strongest. The tomb's main chamber belongs to a fabulously wealthy woman of the nobility who, inhumed with her banqueting service and a wide array of jewellery made by granulation and repoussé, might well be called a queen. The word 'Larthia' on her belongings may record her name.

616 BC

With the death of Ancus Marcius, the first non-Roman king is elected in place of one of the teenage sons of the former king. This is a departure for Rome, as it marks the first time a non-Roman gains the kingship, and effectively confirms the Etruscan domination of central Italy.

c.600 - 580 BC

The city of Velch reaches its height during this period. It has expanded its territories to occupy the land between Latium and Tuscany, probably under the leadership of Mastarna, who is a key figure in the events of 578 BC. The mouth of the River Fiora has become a bustling port that trades extensively with the eastern Mediterranean and Magna Graecia, as attested by the distribution of Etruscan bronzes in this period. Imports of pottery from Attica, Corinth, and Ionia appear in the city's grave goods.

c.580 BC

The Etruscans lose control of the Marsi to the south, while in the north, the major centres of Padan Etruria are being founded. This region to the north-east of the Etruscan heartland is settled up to three hundred years later than the main Etruscan centres, and had more recently formed the centre of the Villanova culture. Although barely known, the cities formed in this region include Adria, Arimnus, Caesena, Felsina, Mantua (modern Mantova), Mutina (Modena), Parma, Ravenna (later capital of the Roman empire), and an unnamed city that becomes the Roman city of Placentia (Piacenza). The region has a long tradition of interaction with the Celtic tribes to the north that remains largely peaceful until the late fourth century. Epigraphic inscriptions testify to the cohabitation and intermarriage of Celts and Etruscans.

? - 578 BC

Mastarna?

In Velch (modern Volci).

578 BC

The city of Clevsin enters into an alliance with its sister city, Arret- (the full name has been lost), and other Etruscan towns against the dominant and powerful Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus. Mastarna and his comrades, the brothers Aulus and Caeles Vibenna, from the city of Velch, play a key role in overthrowing Tarquinius Priscus, with Mastarna achieving this by slight of hand. The Vibenna brothers are killed in the conflict, but Mastarna assumes power and changes his name to Servius Tullius. He is considered a strong reformer, and becomes known as the second founder of Rome.

mid-500s BC

Rusellae is at its height in this century. It replaces its mud brick walls with stone walls and expands its territory to take over some of that of nearby Vetluna. The city of Velch (modern Volci), also emerges out of a number of Villanovan villages and prospers in this century, mainly as a result of trade. This progress from scattered villages to urban centres is typical of the Etruscan resurgence of Italy after a period of late Villanovan stagnation. Located on the west bank of the River Fiora, it lies on a volcanic plateau in an area which is today uninhabited. The city is surrounded by vast walls which contain an extensive network of streets.

c.540 - 535 BC

The threat from the Greek colonies such as Syracuse and Alalia (modern Aleria on Corsica) in the western Mediterranean recedes when Carthage, in alliance with Etruscan cities, backs the Phoenicians of Corsica and succeeds in excluding the Greeks from contact with colonies such as Gadir in southern Iberia. Following victory at the Battle of Alalia on Corsica in 535 BC, Caisra's forces massacre the surviving members of the Greek crews and subsequently establish their own settlement on Corsica (according to Diodorus), either at Alalia or nearby. Unfortunately, despite being on the winning side, the Etruscans see their influence being limited to the Tyrrhenian Sea thanks to the sheer dominance of Carthage in the Mediterranean.

525/524 BC

Aristodemus of the Greek colony of Cumae (modern Cuma) repels an Etruscan expedition in Campania. At this time bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Punic of King Thefarie Velianas of Caisra are incised on sheets of gold leaf that are later discovered at Pyrgi. The inscriptions indicate that the connection with the Carthaginians still remains strong, but hostile relations with Caisra's neighbour, Veii, throws the city's rulers into the arms of Rome during that city's late Etruscan and early republic period.

fl c.510 - 490 BC

Thefarie Velianas

In Caisra (Caere, modern Cerveteri).

509 BC

Etruscan rule of the Latins is ended by an insurrection. The newly-liberated Romans immediately begin to push on Etruscan borders, slowly taking territory in a piecemeal fashion. Etruscan cities are not unified, and often find it hard to support one another, so Rome is able to create treaties with individual Etruscan cities. As if this is not enough, the Etruscans come under increasing pressure from the enthusiastically combative Celts to the north.

It is probably not coincidental that the city of Arret- (Roman Arretium, modern Arezzo) grows in importance from the late sixth century BC onwards. Located on a high, hilly slope close to a wide plateau, it holds a strategic position overlooking valleys and rivers to the south-east of Florence, and can control communications between southern Etruria and the Apennine passes that lead to Padan Etruria.

fl 507 BC

Lars Porsena

In Clevsin (Clusium, modern Chiusi).

509 - 507 BC

The former Etruscan king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, attempts to regain control of the city. In 507 BC he enlists the help of Lars Porsena, ruler of Clevsin. Lars Porsena attacks Rome and probably captures it (although the Roman version of events paints a more flattering picture from their point of view, with Porsena saluting their brave defenders and withdrawing). Even if the city is in fact conquered, Porsena's occupation is brief, perhaps ending after a peace treaty is signed.

501 BC

Titus Lartius Flavus, dictator of Rome, commands forces against the thirty Latin cities that have sworn to reinstate Lucius Tarquinius Superbus as the Etruscan king of Rome. Aruns of Clevsin may be the Aruns Tarquinius who is a son of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, and the brother of Lucius Tarquinius. This Aruns is the subject of a plot involving his brother and his wife, Tullia, daughter of Servius Tullius, former king of Rome. They conspire to murder Lucius' wife (another Tullia who is also a daughter of Servius Tullius) and Aruns himself so that they can marry each other.

fl c.500 BC

Aruns

In Clevsin (Clusium, modern Chiusi). Murdered?

5th century BC

Vetluna shows a marked decrease in tomb burials at the start of this century, suggesting a minor crisis that is possibly caused by Pupluna's emergence as the dominant city in the region. That city gains control of the metal deposits in the Metalliferous Hills.

Early Etruscan civilisation was heavily influenced by the Phoenicians and Greeks

5th century BC?

Arimnestos / Armnestos

In Arimnus (Ariminum, modern Rimini).

The second century traveller, Pausanias, relates that Arimnestos is the first 'barbarian' (or non-Greek) to make a dedication to Zeus at Olympia 'who reigned among the Tyrrhenians'. While this offers a possible window in which to place the reign of Arimnestos, it does little to narrow it down.

480 BC

Hamilcar of Carthage lands a huge army in Sicily in order to confront Syracuse on the island's eastern coast. The Carthaginians are defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Himera, and a long struggle ensues with intermittent warfare between Carthage and Syracuse. The defeat results in substantial political changes in Carthage, and it also results in the loss of the Etruscan cities of Campania in the south during the course of this century, to Rome and the Samnites. This marks a clear start to the Etruscan decline.

477 - 476 BC

As a close neighbour of Rome, the powerful city of Veii is seen as a serious rival and even a threat to its existence. A long-running series of wars results, starting in this year. Despite having major Etruscan connections, the Fabian Gens, one of the most powerful familial groups in Rome, builds a defensive post on land between the two cities which they own but which is subject to heavy cattle raiding by both sides. Veii attacks the post which is held by the semi-private army of the Fabii. The resulting Battle of the Cremora sees three hundred Fabii killed and the area abandoned to the Veiians. Veii now controls the entire west bank of the Tiber, including the Janiculum Hill which overlooks Rome. Less than a year later, Veii's navy is crushed off the coast of Cumae by Hieron of Syracuse and the city is forced to agree a treaty with Rome.

Orgolnium / Orgolnius Velthume

In Tarchna (Tarquinii, modern Tarquinia).

Two fragmented slabs discovered by archaeologists at the start of the twenty-first century, which are known as the Elogia Tarquiniensis, pay tribute to Velthur Spurinnas and Aulus Spurinnas, noblemen of first century BC Tarchna. They mention the otherwise unknown and undated King Orgolnium of Caisra in a flavouring of Etruscan history, recalling the family name of Urgulanilla which later includes among its number the wife of Roman Emperor Claudius. The fact that Orgolnium is undated makes it hard to properly place him in the list of kings, but he must predate Caisra's move to a republic around 400 BC.

mid-400s - 437 BC

Voluminius / Volumnius

In Veii (18km north-west of Rome).

late 400s - 428 BC

Lars Tolumnius

In Veii. Last lauchum of Veii. Died.

428 BC

Veii and Rome are again at war, possibly resulting in the loss to the Etruscans of Fidemae (either at this point or in 406 BC). It also results in the death of the lauchum, Lars Tolumnius, and the establishment of a republic governed by a council of the nobility.

Etruscan Subjugation Period
c.400 BC - AD 12

Etruscan society underwent changes from about the mid-fifth century, along with an economic slump. While the cities recovered from the slump, the political changes became more fully evident in the fourth century. The city states gradually began replacing kings or tyrants with republics governed by the aristocracy, possibly based on Roman lines. The old system was clearly no longer working and Etruscan domination of Italy was starting to come under severe threat from Rome's increasing power and prominence in local politics. The cities of Caisra, Clevsin, Curtun, and Tarchna all threw out the old system around 400 BC. The city of Velathri thereafter declined, losing control over Pupluna (or Fufluna, modern Populonia) and the important sea port it provided. Many Etruscan cities were threatened militarily by Rome, and were conquered one by one as the Roman republic extended its grip over Italy.

406 - 396 BC

After a ten year siege, the once-dominant Veii is conquered by its former subject city, Rome, under the command of Marcus Furius Camillus. (More recent views tend to lean towards a six year siege, with the ten year claim being made in order to draw parallels with the fall of Troy.) With Veii's fall, a key southern defence is lost, leaving the Etruscans under pressure from all sides by several different forces. Much of the city itself is destroyed and its inhabitants are driven off, a new tactic of Rome's which ensures that its most dangerous opponent cannot rise again. Land is parcelled out between Roman citizens and they later rebuild the city as a Roman colony.

c.400 BC

A group of the Cenomani tribe of Celts, a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica, under the leadership of Elitovius cross the Alps into Italy and drive the Etruscans south, occupying their territory. This is probably eastwards to Adige or Etsch, the Ollius on the west and the Padus on the south, while some of their number settle near Massilia. Chief among the occupied towns are Brixia (modern Brescia) and Verona.

This Etruscan villa was excavated at the town of Vetluna (near modern Grosseto in Tuscany), and seems to have belonged to a wealthy family at a time of peace with Rome, in the third century BC

392 BC

The Etruscans of Velzna attack Roman lands, although little is known of their relations with Romans in general at this time and for the next century. Despite their city's decline in the previous hundred years or so, the Etruscans of Vetluna construct an extensive wall system around their city in this century, protecting what must still be a significant settlement from attack, both from Rome and from the dominant Celts to the north.

390 - 389 BC

Brunnus and the Celts pass around the core Etruscan territory to sack Rome. Only the Capitoline Hill stands out against them and a thousand pounds in gold is paid to buy off the attackers. This perhaps allows the Etruscans themselves a respite in the incessant pressure from the Latins, although the city of Clevsin is allied to Rome for the duration of the Celtic incursion.

c.353 BC

The city of Caisra at last becomes impatient of the increasing domination by Rome and protests or rebels. However, their gesture is brought to order, and they are deprived of their coastland territory (in favour of Roman colonists) by the terms of a hundred-year treaty or truce. The city's independence is at an end, although Roman nobles are still sent to Caisra to study the Etruscan language and literature, and perhaps to learn Greek as well.

351 - 311 BC

While at its peak, the city of Tarchna becomes embroiled in a bitter struggle with Rome, with appalling cruelty exhibited on either side. A truce is agreed between the two cities which lasts for forty years. At the end of this period, two joint rulers, or perhaps consuls in the Roman fashion, appear to emerge in the city state republic of Curtun, while Tarchna and Rome reignite their struggle.

fl 310 BC

Larth Cusu Titina

In Curtun (Corito, modern Cortona).

fl 310 BC

Lars Salinis of Avle

In Curtun (Corito, modern Cortona).

310 BC

Etruscans allied to the Samnites fight Rome. The cities of Curtun and Perusna (Perusia, modern Perugia) both fall to Rome in the same period.

308 BC

Tarchna is finally forced to submit to Rome.

301 BC

The city of Arret- has been suffering civil turmoil in this century, possibly a result of Roman pressure on Etruscan lives and freedoms. In this year the plebeians revolt against the important and powerful Cilnii family. A Roman army under Marcus Valerius Maximus arrives to help to restore order, and within twenty years or so, the city submits entirely to Rome.

By this time, a little-known Etruscan city near the modern town of Marzabotto, close to Felsina (modern Bologna), has greatly declined. This region had been settled later than most of the main Etruscan centres to the south and west, between two or three hundred years later. Founded in the sixth century BC, the city had been built on a north-south grid, with paved streets and civic and sacred buildings in the Acropolis. Prosperous until the late fourth century BC, its role suddenly declines to the status of a military outpost following massive Celtic incursions into the Po Valley.

298 BC

Roman General Scipio defeats the forces of the city of Velathri, and the city itself is severely damaged in the process. It now becomes a Roman possession and later provides military aid and supplies to Rome during the Second Punic War.

294 BC

Lucius Postumius Megellus defeat the Etruscans of Velzna. The city of Rusellae, close to Vetluna, is occupied by Rome, the first Etruscan city in northern Etruria to suffer this fate. This is much to Vetluna's detriment, and the city begins to decline. The irrigation systems begin to decay, the drainage systems silt up, and the area slowly reverts to malaria-infested swamp. The Romans attempt to establish a garrison nearby, at the port of Graviscae, but fever kills off its inhabitants.

291 BC

The city of Clevsin is subjugated by Rome after it is defeated at the Battle of Sentino. The tomb of the city's greatest king, Lars Porsena, survives as late as the first century BC, but is lost to history after that. According to Pliny the Elder, Lars Porsenna had been buried 'sub urbe Clusio' (under the city of Clusium), in a huge square tomb ninety-one metres (yards) wide, containing an inextricable labyrinth.

282 - 280 BC

The city of Pupluna suffers badly during Rome's wars against the Boii tribe. Two years later, the city of Vulci loses what has become an increasingly uneven fight against Rome and now falls. Forced to give up control of its large territory, including its access to the coast at Regae, the city rapidly declines and is abandoned completely.

273 BC

The first Roman colony is founded in Etruria.

265 - 264 BC

Velzna, the last independent Etruscan city, is suffering civil strife, so the Romans are called upon by the city's aristocrats to help calm the situation in their favour. Roman troops take a very heavy-handed approach, plundering around two thousand bronzes from all over the city. Their loot is often melted down to provide bronze coin for the war chest. The following year, the city is razed to the ground by the Romans, and the fortunate survivors are forced to resettle, leaving the city's ruins abandoned (it is likely that the modern city of Orvieto has been built directly over those ruins). The Romans interpret the city's name as Volsinii, and the resettled populace now occupy a fresh site which is named Volsinii Novae (modern Bolsena).

253 BC

The city of Caisra supports Tarchna against Rome, despite Tarchna's subjugation by Rome in 308 BC. Both Etruscan cities are defeated and Caisra loses part of its territory, including the coastal strip. The city declines noticeably, with the only burials being in poor graves, mostly re-using existing tombs. By the first century AD the city is totally abandoned.

218 - 202 BC

Etruscan forces including those from Tarchna fight on the side of Rome in the Second Punic War. Arret- has prospered noticeably under Roman rule, and is able to send a large contingent to bolster the Roman forces during the war.

200 BC

The city of Caisra is drawn directly under Roman control. Its decline continues, and by the early Roman imperial period it is regarded by Strabo as little more than a village, although a Roman theatre and an Augusteum exist there.

80 BC

The Etruscans gain Roman citizenship, but as a result of their support of Gaius Marius during the Roman civil war of 88 BC, their language and customs are suppressed.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla defeated his opponent in the Roman civil war, Gaius Marius, and then dealt harshly with the Etruscans who had supported the losing side

AD 12

The last Etruscan inscription is said to be carved at this time, as the Etruscan people gradually lose their identity within the melting pot of Roman empire Italy. Despite this, a large number of Roman families have Etruscan roots, including the Larcii, Licinii, Minucii, Sempronii, and Urgulanilla. The last recorded use of the Etruscan language is in AD 410 when Etruscan priests are said to utter incantations in order to save Rome from the Visigoths of Alaric. However, Etruscan influence may survive to some degree in the city of Venice, which is probably within former Etruscan territory, and some Etruscan cities survive as small settlements in the medieval period, to be rebuilt and expanded as today's modern cities.