African Kingdoms

French Madagascar (French Colonies) (Africa)
AD 1642 - 1960

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Incorporating Diego Suarez, Fort Dauphin, Nossy Be, and Sainte-Marie de Madagascar

Madagascar, the fourth largest island in the world, sits in the western Indian Ocean directly across the Mozambique Channel from the East African country of Mozambique. To its northwest, between Madagascar and Mozambique, are the Comoros and Mayotte, a French possession. To the north lie the Seychelles and to the east Mauritius and the French island of Réunion. To the west, also between Mozambique and Madagascar, are an assortment of small French islands.

The island was inhabited relatively recently compared to the rest of Africa, being settled permanently no earlier than AD 100, although recent archaeological research indicates that humans could have reached Madagascar far earlier--around 8000 BC. These earlier inhabitants did not remain, and much later, Austronesians from what is now Indonesia became the first permanent settlers. Over the centuries, they were joined by Arabs and Bantu-speaking peoples who mostly mixed to form the present-day bulk of the population, the Malagasy.

 By the mid-16th century AD, a variety of powerful kingdoms and dynasties began to emerge. These would flourish, with their ups and downs, well into the colonial period. Concurrently, Europeans, particularly the Portuguese and French, began to exhibit an interest in the island.

When the Merina kingdom began to extend its rule to the rest of the island in the 19th century, the British in Mauritius gave the ruler the title of 'king of Madagascar.' Thereafter, the kingdom prospered as long as it continued to cooperate in the European slave trade.

The French had begun forming colonies in Madagascar, sometimes successfully, sometimes not, since the 17th century. France formally combined all its colonial pieces into a single colony encompassing the whole island in 1896, and the island did not regain independence until 1960.

The royal family and the governing structure was discarded or dismantled, with the queen and her family and also the prime minister being safely exiled to Algeria (the former in 1897 following an uprising). Malagasy troops fought alongside French troops in the Second World War, both before the fall of France and afterwards, in Morocco and Syria. Following the conclusion of the war, it was realised that the age of empires was clearly over, and Madagascar soon gained its independence.

Part of this realisation was borne of nationalist sentiment against the French. This eventually emerged through a small group of Merina intellectuals who had been educated by Europeans and exposed to Western intellectual thought. The group was based in Antananarivo and was led by a Malagasy Protestant clergyman named Pastor Ravelojoana. He was especially inspired by the Japanese model of modernisation.

A secret society dedicated to affirming Malagasy cultural identity was formed in 1913, calling itself 'Iron and Stone Ramification' (in Malagasy this was the 'Vy Vato Sakelika', which was usually abbreviated to VVS). Although the VVS was brutally suppressed, its actions eventually led French authorities to provide the Malagasy with their first representative voice in government.

France finally accepted a form of Malagasy self-rule under its own guidance. In autumn 1945, separate French and Malagasy electoral colleges voted to elect representatives from Madagascar to the Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in Paris. In 1946 Madagascar became a French Overseas Territory. In 1958, Madagascar was granted autonomy as the Malagasy Republic and finally in 1960 was given full independence.

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler & John De Cleene, with additional information from the John De Cleene Archive, from Country Studies - Area Handbook, US Department of the Army at the US Library of Congress, from Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed (Cambridge University Press, 1910), from Hommes et destins: dictionnaire biographique d'Outre-mer (Académie des sciences d'outre-mer, 1981), from Stars and Keys: Folktales and Creolization in the Indian Ocean, Lee Haring, from The Times Atlas of World History, Geoffrey Barraclough (Ed) (Hammond, Inc, 1979), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Flags of the World.org (https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/mg.html), and Kings College London, and Madagascar, and 'Madagascar' (World Statesmen) (https://www.worldstatesmen.org/Madagascar.htm), and 'Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean,' Raymond Kent (General History of Africa, UNESCO (via archive.org) (https://archive.org/details/unesco_general_history_africa_v/page/857/mode/2up?q=sakalava)).)

 1642

France establishes a short-lived colony at modern Tôlanaro on the southeast coast of Madagascar. The French name Madagascar Île Dauphin, and they call their colony Fort-Dauphin. The colony only lasts about thirty years. The French attempt to revive it about a hundred years later, but again it quickly fails.

Insert picture: Brown mouse lemur] Caption: A brown mouse lemur, Microcebus rufus, which is unique to Madagascar and threatened with extinction. Photograph: Chien C Lee Source: The Guardian (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/10/madagascar-unique-wildlife-extinction-aoe)

1642 - 1648

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.

1648 - 1655

Interim gov. of Fort-Dauphin.Wrote 1st description of Madagascar.

 by 1653

Dian Ramack, chief of the Antanosy, dies after attempting to unite his people with the Zafiraminia. The French at Fort-Dauphin block efforts at state-building and obtain the submission of a number of local chiefs.

1655

Acting governor of Fort-Dauphin.Second time.

1655

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.

1655 - 1656

Acting governor of Fort-Dauphin.

1656 - 1657

Acting governor of Fort-Dauphin.

1657 - 1661

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.

 1660

Andriandahifotsy, the Maroserana ruler, founds the Menabé kingdom with the help of the French colony at Fort-Dauphin. The French also put an end to the supremacy of the Zafikazimambo in southeastern Madagascar.

1661 - 1665

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.Second time.

1665

 President of the council, Fort-Dauphin.

1665 - 1666

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.

1666 - 1667

Acting governor of Fort-Dauphin.Third time.

1667 - 1670

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.

 1667 - 1671

Fort-Dauphin serves as the headquarters of the Compagnie des Indes Orientales (the French East India Company). French settlers like to engage as soldiers for native rulers to supplement their income. 

1670 - 1671

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.

1671 - 1672

Acting governor of Fort-Dauphin.Fourth time.

1672 - 1674

Governor of Fort-Dauphin.

 1674

Fort-Dauphin is abandoned. It is only reestablished in 1768 and then only until 1770, when it is permanently deserted. A high death rate from malaria, violence, and food shortages is responsible.

[Insert picture: Audience] Caption: Audience at the palace of Antananarivo. The kingdom’s resistance to European colonization, particularly under Queen Ranavalona I, inspired national pride and resistance movements throughout the 20th century. Its influence endures in Madagascar’s cultural identity, infrastructure, and socio-political structures. Source: African History Group (Thinkafrica.net) (Facebook (https://www.facebook.com/groups/275114380263865/posts/1237027850739175/)) (HF Merina file)

late. 17th & early 18th c.

European pirates, including Captain William Kidd, who are busy attacking shipping in the Indian Ocean, often approach Madagascar.

 1750

King Ratsimilaho of Tamatave (also called Betsimisraka and now Toamasina) cedes land to France on the site of present-day Nosy-Varika) (Nosy Boraha) on the east central coast of Madagascar. The French plant a colony there and call it Sainte=Marie de Madagascar. The colony dies after four years but is restored in 1818.

1750 - 1754

Administrator of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

 1768 - 1770

France attempts to redevelop Fort-Dauphin, but the French quit after only two years. Tropical diseases limit trade opportunities, and the French find that the colony doesn't pay.

1768 - 1770

Commandant of Fort-Dauphin.

 1818

The French reestablish Sainte-Marie de Madagascar, which for administrative purposes is placed under Réunion (which was then called Île de Bourbon).

1818 - 1821

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1821 - 1823

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1823

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1823 - 1826

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.Second time.

 1824 - 1828

With British support, King Radama completes the Merina conquest of the Madagascan clans. He is recognised as king of Madagascar by Britain. The Menabe clan in the west, the Betsimisaraka clan on the east coast, and the kingdom of Tanibe are amongst the last to be subdued.

Queen Ranavalona, who succeeds her husband Radama in 1828, repudiates the treaties that he had signed with the British, and murders the king's heir and other relatives. In 1835 she prohibits Christianity and expels British missionaries while executing other Christians. The queen's actions isolate the island and ruin its trade with other nations. She encourages slavery again.

1826 - 1827

Interim commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1827 - 1830

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1830

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.Second time.

 1830 - 1841

Sainte-Marie de Madagascar does not have its own commandants, being ruled directly from the Île de Bourbon (Réunion).

 1840

The French found a colony on the island of Nosy Be (Nossi-bé or Nosse Be), just off the northwestern coast of Madagascar. The new colony is subordinate to Île de Bourbon (Réunion).

1841 - 1849

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1841 - 1842

Governor of Nosy Be.

1842

Governor of Nosy Be.

1842 - 1845

Governor of Nosy Be.

 1843

Merina overruns Antankara, whose rulers flee to nearby islands. The exiled rulers appeal to the French for help, and in exchange the kingdom becomes a protectorate in 1843, and remains so until 1891.

[Insert picture: Embassy to Europe] Caption: Malagasy Embassy to Europe 1863: Rainifiringa Ralaimaholy with Rev John Duffus and Rasatranabo (Rainandrianandraina) Source: 'History of Madagascar Images' (picryl.com) (https://picryl.com/topics/history+of+madagascar) (HF Merina file)

 1845

Administratively, Sainte-Marie de Madagascar is subordinated to Mayotte but continues to have its own commandants. The same is true of Nosy Be.

1845 - 1848

Governor of Nosy Be.

1848 - 1851

Governor of Nosy Be.

1849 - 1850

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1850 - 1851

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1851 - 1853

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.Second time.

1851

Governor of Nosy Be.

1851 - 1852

Governor of Nosy Be.

1852 -1853

Governor of Nosy Be.

1853

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

 1853

Sainte-Mariede Madagascar becomes a separate colony in its own right but only for twenty-five years, after which it comes under the direct rule of Réunion.

1853 - 1855

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1853 - 1854

Governor of Nosy Be.Formerly of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1854 - 1855

Governor of Nosy Be.

1855 - 1856

Governor of Nosy Be.

1855 - 1856

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1856 - 1858

Governor of Nosy Be.Second time.

1858 - 1860

Governor of Nosy Be.

1858 - 1868

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1860 - 1861

Governor of Nosy Be.

1861 - 1865

Governor of Nosy Be.

 1862

On 12 September 1862 a Franco-Malagasy treaty of friendship is signed, recognising the kingdom's sovereignty. However, certain clauses that authorise the takeover of land, natural resources, and the use of the labour force, put this sovereignty at risk.

1865 - 1866

Governor of Nosy Be.

1866 - 1868

Governor of Nosy Be.

1868 - 1869

Governor of Nosy Be.

1868 - 1874

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

 1868

France, which has a protectorate over Nossi-Bé, now recognizes Ravanalona (queen of Merina) as queen of Madagascar and establishes a consulate in the island.

[Insert image: Malagasy women] Caption:  Around 1905, a woman of Madagascar’s elite sat for a photograph. Lace gown. Gold jewelry. Regal posture. Direct gaze. Without context, she could pass for Parisian nobility. But this image was taken just years after France destroyed Madagascar’s independence. Source: some.amazing.facts (Instagram) (https://www.instagram.com/p/DS-2D78iG3b/ ) (HF Merina file)

1869 - 1870

Governor of Nosy Be.

1870 - 1871

Governor of Nosy Be.

1871 - 1872

Governor of Nosy Be.

1872 - 1873

Governor of Nosy Be.

1873 - 1874

Governor of Nosy Be.

1874 - 1875

Governor of Nosy Be.

1874 - 1878

Commandant of Sainte-Marie de Madagascar.

1875 - 1876

Governor of Nosy Be.

1876

Governor of Nosy Be.

1876 - 1883

Governor of Nosy Be.

 1878

Sainte-Marie de Madagascar is ruled directly from Réunion/Diégo-Suarez. Nosy Be is removed from under the supervision of Mayotte to become a separate French colony.

 1882

Based on treaties signed with the Sakalava in the 1840s, the French establish a protectorate over north-western Madagascar.

1883 - 1886

Governor of Nosy Be.

 1883

Using the excuse of a cancelled treaty and the loss of French property, France invades Madagascar in the First Franco-Hova (or Franco-Merina) War and conquers the island in the face of local resistance.

 1885 - 1890

An 1885 treaty confirms French control over Madagascar's foreign relations, and in 1890, an Anglo-French declaration recognizes a French protectorate, as well as acknowledging French influence in the Sahara and British influence between the Niger River and Lake Chad. Germany also recongizes the protectorate in 1890.

1886 - 1888

Governor of Nosy Be.

 1886

France creates a new colony of Diégo-Suarez, based at Antsiranana on the Bay of Diégo-Suarez at the very northern tip of Madagascar.

1886 - 1887

Commandant of Diégo-Suarez.

1887 - 1896

Commandant of Diégo-Suarez.

1888 - 1889

Governor of Nosy Be.

1889 - 1896

Governor of Nosy Be.

1895 - 1897

Queen. Exiled. Monarchy abolished.

 1895 - 1896

Agreements in Europe mean that France can attack the Malagasy again without any interference from Britain. Queen Ranavalona III refuses to recognise the latest French effort to subordinate her kingdom, so in 1895 a French expeditionary force lands on the island, sparking the Second Frano-Hova War. In September, the French capture the country's seventeenth-century highland capital, Antananarivo (formerly known as Tananarivo). A wave of anti-foreign, anti-Christian rioting follows. But the queen has to recognize a French protectorate.

A series of four military commanders exercize actual rule over the island. In 1896, all of the French colonies are united into the single colony of Madagascar. The entire island is annexed, to the surprise of the queen. The last military commander, Joseph Simon Gallieni, is elevated to the rank of governor-general.

1895

Acting French military commander.

1895 - 1896

French military commander.

1896 - 1905

French military governor.Promoted to governor-general in 1897.

1896 - 1898

Joseph Simon Galliéni has already been responsible for establishing a French military presence within the Tukulor empire in West Africa in 1879 and exiling Madagascar's Queen Ranavalona to abolish the island's monarchy, From the moment he gains command of Madagascar, Galliéni institutes the foundation of French schools and products and helps to develop the island's economy through increased trade by creating roads and railways. Most of the island's external trade is with France, and the main language soon becomes French.

French troops entered the island's seventeenth century highland capital, Antananarivo (formerly known as Tananarivo) in 1895 and the Marina kingdom fell

A rebellion is already taking place in Imerina itself, with armed guerrilla bands called the Menalamba, or 'Red Togas', resisting modernisation and French rule. Galliéni puts down the insurrection, subdues the monarchy (by sending the queen into exile in 1897), and abolishes slavery. By 1898 the Merina kingdom is fully pacified, leaving the French the lesser task of subduing the few areas that had been outside the control of Merina.

1905 - 1906

Acting governor-general.

1907

The government closes the island's congregational churchs and schools, which adds to local resentment already intensified by heavy taxation and the expropriation of private property for little compensation.

1906 - 1909

Governor-general.

1909 - 1910

Acting governor-general.

1910

Acting governor-general.

1910 - 1914

Governor-general.

1912

France incorporates the Comoros Islands into  Madagascar. In 1946, the Comoros are separated to become a French overseas territory in their own right.

1913

A secret society that is dedicated to affirming Malagasy cultural identity is formed. It calls itself 'Iron and Stone Ramification' (in Malagasy this is the 'Vy Vato Sakelika', which is usually abbreviated to VVS). Although the VVS is brutally suppressed, its actions eventually lead French authorities to provide the Malagasy with their first representative voice in government.

[Rice fields] Caption: Rice fields in Madagascar. Photo by Roberto Castano Source: (https://www.pexels.com/photo/local-farmer-walking-through-madagascar-landscape-32215463/)

1914 - 1917

Second term of office.

1917 - 1918

Governor-general.

1918

The first of several uprisings begins in the cities, led by opposition movements to French rule. In Mauritius a similar uprising is triggered by self-determination implications in the Treaty of Versailles which has recently been signed as the concluding act to the First World War. In that case it is a return to French rule from British rule that is desired rather than the Malagasy requirement to remove French rule altogether.

1918 - 1919

Governor-general.

1919 - 1920

Acting governor-general.

1920 - 1923

Third term of office.

1923 - 1924

Acting governor-general.

1924

Amongst the first concessions to Malagasy equality is the formation of two economic and financial delegations. One is composed of French settlers, the other of twenty-four Malagasy representatives who are elected by the 'Council of Notables' for each of the twenty-four districts. The two sections never meet together, and neither have real decision-making authority.

1924 - 1929

1929 - 1930

Acting governor-general.

1930 - 1939

Acting governor-general.First time.

1935 - 1936

In 1935, the country's second railroad line is completed. (The first was completed in 1913.)  Airlines are added beginning in 1936.

[Insert picture: House] Caption: House in Madagascar, photograph by Edwin Malca Cerna Source: pexels.com (https://www.pexels.com/photo/traditional-stone-hut-in-amazonas-peru-30302538/)

1939

Acting governor-general.

1939 - 1940

Also governor of Dahomey, French Somaliland, West Africa.

1940

When France falls to Germany during World War II, Madagascar remains aligned with the puppet Vichy French rump state. Madagascar will go over to the Free French in 1943, after the British have occupied the island.

1940 - 1941

Second term of office.

1941 - 1942

Also governor of French Somaliland, & Dahomey.

1942 - 1943

Due to France being occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second World War, and to prevent Japan from occupying Madagascar, Britain takes control of the island following success at the Battle of Madagascar which begins on 5 May 1942. Vichy supporter Governor Annet defends the island with 8,000 troops but is forced to surrender on 5 November. Governance of the island is initially handled by British army staff before being handed over to Free French governors-general.

This photo shows British or allied troops establishing a beachhead during the Battle of Madagascar - Vichy French control of the island was about to be replaced by British and then Free French control, heralding a seeming return to the status quo

1942

British Occupied Territories Administrator. CO of British forces.

1942

Joint UK military administrator, Madagascar.

1942

UK chief political officer, East Africa Command.

1942 - 1943

British Occupied Territories Administrator.

1942 - 1943

French acting governor-general.

1942 - 1944

UK commander (Islands Area).

1943

High commissioner Fr. possessions in the Indian Ocean.

1943 - 1946

French governor-general.

1946

Acting governor-general.

1945 - 1947

In the aftermath of the war, France is finally willing to accept a form of Malagasy self-rule under its own guidance. In autumn 1945, separate French and Malagasy electoral colleges vote to elect representatives from Madagascar to the Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in Paris. The two delegates chosen by the Malagasy, Joseph Raseta and Joseph Ravoahangy, both campaign to implement the ideal of the self-determination of peoples that had been affirmed by the Atlantic Charter of 1941 and by the historic Brazzaville Conference of 1944.

In 1946 Madagascar becomes an 'Overseas Territory' of France, but in the following year the French suppress an armed nationalist rebellion in the east known alternatively as the Malagasy Uprising or the Revolt of 1947. This is led by Jean Ralaimongo and up to eighty thousand Malagasy are killed when the rebellion is put down. French military courts try those military leaders of the revolt that they can find, and twenty of them are executed.

[Insert picture: War memorial] Caption: Malagasy Soldiers Memorial, photographed by J. Makali Bruton, 28 August 2024 Source: Historical Marker Database (https://www.hmdb.org/Results.asp?Search=Country&Country=Madagascar&u=&DP=.O)

1946 - 1947

French High Commissioner.

1948 - 1950

French High Commissioner.

1950 - 1954

French High Commissioner.

1954 - 1959

French High Commissioner.

1956

France's socialist government renews the French commitment to greater autonomy in Madagascar and other colonial possessions by enacting the loi-cadre (the enabling law). The loi-cadre provides for universal suffrage and is the basis for parliamentary government in each colony. In the case of Madagascar, the law establishes executive councils that will function alongside provincial and national assemblies, and the separate electoral colleges for French and Malagasy groups are dissolved.

Two major political parties emerge. The newly created Democratic Social Party of Madagascar (Parti Social Démocrate de Madagascar or PSD) favours self-rule while maintaining close ties with France. The PSD is led by Philibert Tsiranana, a well-educated Tsimihety from the northern coastal region who is one of three Malagasy deputies elected in 1956 to the National Assembly in Paris. 

In sharp contrast, those advocating complete independence from France come together under the auspices of the Congress Party for the Independence of Madagascar (Antokon'ny Kongresy Fanafahana an'i Madagasikara or AKFM). Primarily based in Antananarivo and Antsiranana, party support centres amongst the Merina under the leadership of Richard Andriamanjato, himself a Merina and a member of the Protestant clergy.

1960

Following the adoption of a constitution in 1959, Madagascar achieves independence as a republic on 26 June 1960, with Philibert Tsiranana of the PSD being elected to the post of president. Unfortunately what becomes an unpopular period in office is a sign of things to come for modern Madagascar.