African Kingdoms

English Gold Coast Colony (English Colonies) (Africa)
AD 1621 - 1707

West African States All Modern States All African States Early Africa (Intro) Egypt

In a history of Africa which can at times be difficult to uncover, one kingdom which stands out is that of Asante. One of the continent's most impressive kingdoms, it was built largely on slaves and gold. The kingdom was founded deep in the forests of what is now Ghana in West Africa, an unusual location from which a sophisticated kingdom could emerge.

However, by the time it was being formed out of the expanded Kwaaman clan state, Europeans had already made inroads into Africa, creating the beginnings of colonial holdings. At first, just as with the Phoenician colonies in the early first millennium BC, these were trading posts and then trading-based land holdings. That trade proved highly profitable, and then came the slave trade which proved even more profitable, for Europeans and some African state alike.

The territory which largely forms modern Ghana essentially became two rival states when an English trading company established its own coastal colony in 1621. Located in the south of today's Ghana, the English formed what they labelled 'English Gold Coast' or, more simply, Gold Coast. To its north were the various Akan states which included Kwaaman and, later, Asante.

Only one element of this pairing would win the struggle for superiority. At first, the English, and then British, colony was a relatively minor affair. It was established by the 'Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea' (or CMTG for reasons of convenience), which altered its name in 1651 to the 'Company of London Merchants'. Its chief post was Kormantin, but not all of its early governors are known.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the BBC documentary series, Lost Kingdoms of Africa, first broadcast on 5 January 2010, from English Chief Factors on the Gold Coast 1632-1753, R Porter, from Ghana: A Country Study, Berry La Verle (Ed), 1994, from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), and from External Links: BBC Country Profiles, and Manhyia Palace, and British Battles, and The British Empire, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Country Studies - Ghana, and World Statesmen.)

1621

English traders create the 'English Gold Coast' colony, under the administration of the 'Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea' (referred here as the CMTG to save space, and known as the 'Company of London Merchants' from 1651), with Kormantin as its chief post.

The Kwaaman clan state is separated from this coastal strip by the Fante people, so that the first effects of its creation are not felt that far inland. Gold Coast's known governors are shown below, but there are a few gaps in the early records.

Akan people - photographed here around the beginning of the twentieth century - migrated into regions of modern Ghana from around the eleventh century AD, but probably in smaller family groups rather than as a single mass movement of people

1621 - 1623

English governor of Gold Coast.

1632 - 1633

English chief factor of the CMTG.

1633 - 1638

English chief factor of the CMTG.

1638 - 1640

English chief factor of the CMTG.

c.1640

The Kwaaman clan state expands under the leadership of Otumfuo Nana Oti Akenten. He wages a series of successful military operations against neighbouring Akan states, bringing a larger surrounding territory into alliance with the Kwaaman state.

This suggests that the chief settlement of Kwaaman has already been renamed Kumasi or Kum-ase and that the tale of its founding by Osei Tutu has been lifted from earlier tradition. The rulers of the expanded state are titled kumasehene, but Denkyira is still the region's dominant state.

Denkyira's main centre of interest and occupation was around the coastal region of what later became Ashantiland (shown here in the nineteenth century), which later developed into the Gold Coast area, close to modern Ivory Coast but still within Ghana's borders

1640 - 1641

English chief factor for the second time.

1641 - 1642

English chief factor for the second time.

1642 - 1644

Six employees of the 'Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea' manage the administration of the Gold Coast colony during this period. Their names are unknown.

1644

English chief factor for the third time.

1644 - 1645

English chief factor of the CMTG.

1645

English chief factor of the CMTG.

1645 - 1646

English chief factor for the fourth time.

1646

English chief factor for the second time.

1646

English chief factor for the second time. Died.

1646 - 1650

English chief factor of the CMTG.

1650

English chief factor of the CMTG.

1650 - 1651

English chief factor for the second time.

1651

The 'Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea' in England becomes the 'Company of London Merchants'. This company had been formed in 1600 by royal charter which was issued by the Tudor monarch, Elizabeth I. The company becomes far better known by its title of 'East India Company'.

As Princess Elizabeth, her life was sometimes in danger, especially during her sister's reign, and she was constantly the subject of political intrigue, even without her consent - she is pictured here in the earliest-known full length portrait of her as queen, by Steven van der Meulen and Steven van Herwijck (as seen at Tate Britain, London)

1651 - 1654

English chief factor of the Company of London Merchants.

1654 - 1655

English chief factor of the Company of London Merchants.

1655 - 1657

English chief factor of the Company of London Merchants.

1657 - 1658

English agent of the East India Company.

1658 - 1659

English agent of the East India Company.

1659 - 1661

English agent of the East India Company. First name unknown.

1661 - 1662

English agent of the East India Company.

1662 - 1663

English agent of the East India Company.

1663

English agent of the East India Company.

1663

English agent of the East India Company.

1663

English agent of the Royal Company of Adventurers.

1663

Francis Selwyn's term of office as agent for the recently-chartered 'Royal Company of Adventurers' (from 1660) is followed by a short period between September 1663 and May 1664 in which seven merchants are rotated on a monthly basis as agents.

The forests of Ghana have suffered from deforestation for centuries, notably when the Akan people started clearing areas for crops but even today, with organisations such as Client Earth trying to repair the problems it has caused

1664 - 1665

English agent for the second time. Captured by the Dutch.

1665 - 1667

English agent of the Royal Company of Adventurers. Died.

1667 - 1672

English agent of the Royal Company of Adventurers.

1672

English agent of the Royal Company of Adventurers.

1672

The 'Royal Company of Adventurers' is reorganised and re-titled as the 'Royal African Company'. The company concentrates its trade on gold, slaves, ivory, and wood. It loses its regional African monopoly in 1698.

1672 - 1673

English agent-general of the Royal African Company.

1673 - 1676

English agent-general of the Royal African Company.

1676 - 1678

English agent-general of the Royal African Company. Died.

1677 - 1678

English agent-general of the Royal African Company. Died.

1678 - 1680

English agent-general of the Royal African Company.

c.1680

Obiri Yeboah has steadily been building up a union which will become known as Asante. His death places in doubt the future of that union, but he is succeeded by his sister's son, Osei Tutu, who has a father who is from Akwamu. Osei Tutu not only continues his uncle's work in regard to the union but now ensures the protection of Akwamu when he offends the dominant king at Denkyira.

English and later British interest in their Gold Coast trading centre saw it turn into an imperial colonial formation which frequently challenged the Asante in battle

c.1680 - 1701

Denkyira's neighbours begin to band together under the leadership of Osei Tutu who is largely protected by Akwamu. The subsequent destruction of Denkyira as a leading power gives birth to the Asante kingdom under Osei Tutu.

He forms a capital at Kumasi and he and his successors rule as the asantehene, the king of all Asante. They use their newfound wealth to ensure prominent displays of gold as a symbol of their grip on power.

Previously independent neighbouring states are gradually integrated into the expanding kingdom. Their chiefs are made subjects, and their territories are made regions of the new kingdom. Captive enemy warriors are enslaved and put to work in feeding the economy and helping to further expand the kingdom. Akwamu to the south remains an honoured friend and supporter.

1680 - 1684

English agent-general of the Royal African Company.

1684

English agent-general of the Royal African Company.

1684 - 1687

English agent-general of the Royal African Company.

1687 - 1691

English chief merchant of the Royal African Company.

1691 - 1692

English chief merchant of the Royal African Company.

1692 - 1693

English chief merchant of the Royal African Company.

1693 - 1696

English chief merchant of the Royal African Company.

1696 - 1698

English chief merchant of the Royal African Company.

1698 - 1700

English chief merchant of the Royal African Company.

1700 - 1701

English agent-general of the Royal African Company. Died.

c.1701

Around this time the growing Kwaaman clan state has built up enough momentum to form the kingdom of Asante in what is now central Ghana. Only now does it begin to come into contact with the Gold Coast territories to its south.

The British probably met up with the Asante leaders at an early point in the expansion of Gold Coast, although this 1819 illustrates a meeting of its own time, as confirmed by the headgear worn by the British soldiers at the back

1701 - 1702

English agent-general of the Royal African Company. Died.

1702 - 1703

English agent-general of the Royal African Company.

1703 - 1711

English agent-general of the Royal African Company. Died.

1707

The 'English Gold Coast' colony becomes 'British Gold Coast' on 1 May. The Asante use their trading networks to sell slaves for profit to the British and other European nations who trade along the coast (see feature link, right). In return, they buy European weapons which they use to further increase the size of the kingdom.

British Gold Coast Colony (British Empire) (Africa)
AD 1707 - 1902

West African States All Modern States All African States Early Africa (Intro) Egypt

In Africa's history, the kingdom of Asante was one of its most impressive kingdoms. Built largely on slaves and gold, it was located deep in the forests of what is now Ghana in West Africa. However, it was formed in the early eighteenth century out of clan states which already had a European colonial presence to their south.

At first this colonial presence came in the form of trading posts and then trading-based land holdings. That trade proved highly profitable. Then came the slave trade which proved even more profitable, for Europeans and some African state alike. The territory which largely forms modern Ghana essentially became two rival states when England established its own coastal colony in 1621.

This was located in the south of today's Ghana, labelled 'English Gold Coast' or, more simply, Gold Coast. To its north were the various Akan states which included Kwaaman, founder of Asante. At first, the English colony was a relatively minor affair. It was established by the 'Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea' (or CMTG), which altered its name in 1651 to the 'Company of London Merchants'. Its chief post was Kormantin.

The formal union of the crowns of late Stuart England and Scotland was enacted in 1707. The idea had been recommended by William III and was now approved by Queen Anne as a method of avoiding the possibility of Scotland going its own way when the Scottish parliament refused to endorse the Hanoverian succession.

The joint kingdoms were to be governed from a single Parliament at Westminster in London, and colonial holdings were suitably renamed which included 'English Gold Coast' becoming 'British Gold Coast'. The expanded single kingdom was still threatened by Stuart pretenders so all its territories had to be on their guard.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from John De Cleene Archive, from the BBC documentary series, Lost Kingdoms of Africa, first broadcast on 5 January 2010, from English Chief Factors on the Gold Coast 1632-1753, R Porter, from Ghana: A Country Study, Berry La Verle (Ed), 1994, from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from Segu, Maryse Condé (Barbara Bray (Trans), New York, 1987), from The Horizon History of the British Empire, Steven W Sears (Ed, USA, 1973), and from External Links: BBC Country Profiles, and Manhyia Palace, and British Battles, and The British Empire, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Country Studies - Ghana, and World Statesmen, and The Rise of the Akwamu Empire, 1650-1710, Ivor Wilks (Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, Vol 3, No 2, 1957, pp 25-62, and available for download as a PDF from JSTOR).)

1711 - 1717

British agent-general of the Royal African Company.

1717 - 1718

British captain-general of the Royal African Company. Died.

During his reign between 1718-1750, Opuku Ware of Asante fights wars of expansion which bring the northern states of Mamprusi, Dagomba, and Gonja under Asante influence. He also defeats Bono, another Akan state, by 1723.

Asante was growing rapidly by the early 1800s, both its empire and its capital at Kumasi which is shown here in a late nineteenth century depiction

1718 - 1719

British captain-general of the Royal African Company.

1719

British captain-general of the Royal African Company. Died.

1719 - 1722

British captain-general for a second time.

1722 - 1723

British captain-general of the Royal African Company.

1723 - 1726

British captain-general of the Royal African Company.

1726 - 1727

British captain-general of the Royal African Company.

1727

Well south of the early Asante kings, the administration of 'British Gold Coast' is reformed, using a resurrected three-man triumvirate format, with only the senior-most of them shown here. The individuals involved rotate regularly, usually on an annual basis, and the same senior chief agent may oversee several such rotations, often with the same names cropping up many times.

This image shows Kumasi in 1824, complete with British guard, possibly during a meeting between the asantehene and the governor of Gold Coast (with Sir Charles MacCarthy being the most likely candidate)

1727 - 1729

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1729 - 1732

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1730 - 1731

After perhaps a generation of increasing pressure from the Akyem peoples and much fighting, the state of Akwamu has been reduced in size and survives, essentially, as an addendum to Asante by 1731.

Otumfuo Akonno Kuma becomes regent for the lost Akwamu throne until 1744, when he is able to succeed as titular ruler. His successors continue to provide leadership for the Akwamu people within the Asante kingdom and into modern Ghana.

1732 - 1734

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1734 - 1737

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1737 - 1738

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1738 - 1741

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1742 - 1749

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1749

British chief agent of the Royal African Company.

1749 - 1750

British governor of the Royal African Company.

1750

British governor of the Royal African Company.

1750

The 'Company of Merchants Trading to Africa' takes over administration of Gold Coast from the 'Royal African Company' (which retains its legal rights until it is dissolved in April 1752). The last Royal African Company governor is also president of the council until December 1750, and he continues his role as governor under the 'Committee of Merchants'.

From the early trading posts in the English Gold Coast territory, British presence was gradually increased to the point at which it became a major opponent of Asante dominance in what is now Ghana

1750 - 1751

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1751 - 1756

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1756

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1756 - 1757

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1757 - 1761

Acting British governor.

1761 - 1763

British governor for the second time.

1763 - 1766

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1766

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1766 - 1769

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1769 - 1770

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1770 - 1777

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1777 - 1780

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1780 - 1781

British governor for the second time.

1781 - 1782

Acting British governor.

1782 - 1784

British governor for the second time.

1784 - 1787

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1787

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1787 - 1789

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1789 - 1791

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1791 - 1792

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1792 - 1798

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1798 - 1799

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1799 - 1800

British governor for the second time.

1800 - 1802

British governor for the second time.

1800s

By now, Asante has grown to such a size that it has a population of two million, an incredible number for nineteenth century Africa. It has more than doubled its size since the seventeenth century, incorporating territory that is a sixteen day walk away from the central capital at Kumasi. During his reign, Osei Bonsu defeats the Fante confederation and dominates Gold Coast trade.

The Second Anglo-Ashanti War of 1863 was part of Britain's continued policy of asserting control over its domains and those around them

1802 - 1805

British governor for the second time.

1805 - 1807

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1807 - 1816

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1807

The slave trade in Britain is abolished, and Asante is affected. Trade has to switch to other products and Kumasi suffers a population drop as people move towards the southern provinces, nearer the coast, to engage in new trading ventures. Payment in gold for European items causes a shortage, so gold is hoarded and becomes even more scarce.

Similarly, local natives who have been exported as slaves during the eighteenth century to European colonies such as Jamaica also suffer as the plantation owners find cheap labour which often does not include them. The technically-free Leeward Maroons and Windward Maroons of that island also have large numbers of Akan people amongst their populations.

Jamaica's Blue Mountains form the longest mountain range along the eastern edge of Jamaica and feature majestic scenery while also being the source of the world-famous and highly fragrant Blue Mountain Coffee

However, Asante has already started to expand towards that same coast, impinging on neighbouring Fante territory from 1806. By 1814 the Fante are broken.

? - 1812

British commander of Fort Winnebah. Killed by natives.

1816 - 1817

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1817

Thomas Bowditch visits the Asante kingdom from England and writes a remarkable account of his attendance at the royal court, noting its lavish display of showy cloths and silks, animals, and golden swords. The king wields great power over his people, and is happy to display his wealth by wearing more gold than anyone else while his ministers hold the skulls of opponents who have been overcome by the king.

1817 - 1822

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1821

Britain abolishes the 'African Company of Merchants' and seizes privately-held land along the coast, incorporating it into the Gold Coast crown colony. Suddenly Asante is forced to recognise that it is not the only major power in the region and the two begin an unspoken struggle for superiority.

Britannia between Death and the Doctors shows an ailing Britannia being approached by Death in the guise of Napoleon, while her politicians squabble (LC-USZC4-8794)

As far as Britain is concerned, the formalisation of the Gold Coast crown colony not only helps to keep the competing French and their Ivory Coast territory from expanding eastwards, but also gives Britain a foothold in influencing Asante's affairs.

Only grass and bush separates the French West Africa territories to the north from Asante, and the kingdom of Dahomey borders Asante to the east so the French focus their attentions here instead.

1822

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1822

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1822 - 1824

British governor of the Gold Coast for the second time. Killed.

1822 - 1831

A misunderstanding occurs between Asante, the Fante, and the British which causes the asantehene to take offence. The British defensively prepare the entire coast and the Ashanti mobilise their forces for the First Anglo-Ashanti War.

The British march against them but are overwhelmed and the severed head of the governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, is taken back to Kumasi. The fighting eventually dies down in 1831 and the region is more or less peaceful for the next three decades.

Dahomey tribespeople were photographed for Hubert Howe Bancroft's The Book of the Fair, published in Chicago in 1893, by which time Dahomey was the subject of extreme interest by the French, and its former status as a regional power was eroded

1824

British governor of the Gold Coast for the second time.

1824 - 1825

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1825 - 1826

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1826

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1826 - 1827

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1827 - 1828

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1828

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1828

British governor of the Gold Coast for the second time.

1828

The British government allows control of the Gold Coast settlements to revert to the 'African Company of Merchants', at which time relations with Asante are still problematic. From the Asante point of view, the British have failed to control the activities of their local coastal allies. Had this been done, Asante may not have found it necessary to attempt to impose a peace on the coastal peoples.

The 1830s in Britain witnessed astonishing advances, although the remarkable inaugural day of running on the Manchester to Liverpool railway was marred by a dreadful tragedy (click or tap on image to read more on a separate page)

MacCarthy's encouragement of coastal opposition to Asante and the subsequent 1824 British military attack has further indicated to Asante authorities that the Europeans, especially the British, do not respect Asante.

1828 - 1830

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1830 - 1836

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1830 - 1831

Having been selected as governor of Gold Coast by the British 'African Company of Merchants' in 1830, Captain George Maclean immediately arranges a peace treaty with Asante (in 1831). He also supervises the coastal people by holding regular court at Cape Coast where he punishes those found guilty of disturbing the peace. No confrontations occur with Asante during his period in office and trade triples.

1836 - 1838

British governor of Gold Coast's 'Committee of Merchants'.

1838 - 1843

British governor for the second time.

1841 - 1844

Kwaku Dua of Asante fights against the Gonja and Dagomba to the north, while to the south matters are largely peaceful. George Maclean's time in office as governor of Gold Coast has been so successful for peaceful relations and trade that a Parliamentary committee has recommended that the British government permanently administer its settlements and negotiate treaties with the coastal chiefs which will define Britain's relations with them.

The once powerful Asante empire declined as British colonial forces took hold and imposed their own controls, largely through political interference but resorting to warfare when demanded

The government does this now, in 1843, reinstating crown government. Commander Henry Worsley Hill is appointed the first 'proper', crown governor of the Gold Coast.

1843 - 1845

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1845 - 1846

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1846 - 1849

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1849

Britain establishes a presence around Lagos and from 1861 governs what it calls the 'Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria' by indirect rule through local leaders. It constantly pressured Benin to become a British protectorate.

1849 - 1850

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1850

British governor for the second time.

1850 - 1852

On 13 January 1850 the administration of Gold Coast is separated from that of Sierra Leone which, until now, has provided the function of 'head office' to which the Gold Coast governors have had to report. The former 'Dutch Gold Coast' settlements of the Netherlands are incorporated into the British territories on 30 March 1850.

King William I of the 'United Kingdom of the Netherlands' struggled to please both halves of his state despite fostering industry and trade in both of them, with the result that the two halves split in 1831

Two years later, in April 1852, growing acceptance of the advantages offered by the British presence leads local chiefs and elders to meet at Cape Coast to consult with the governor on future means of raising revenue. With the governor's approval, the council of chiefs constitutes itself as a legislative assembly, albeit without any formal powers.

1850 - 1851

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1851 - 1854

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1854 - 1857

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1857 - 1858

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1858 - 1860

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1860 - 1862

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1862

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1862 - 1865

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1863

The brief Second Anglo-Ashanti War is triggered when a large Asante force crosses the river in pursuit of a fugitive by the name of Kwesi Gyana. The British governor of Gold Coast defends the territory under his command but his request for more troops from home is declined and sickness forces him to withdraw.

West Africa in the second half of the nineteenth century was a place of development, with large tribal empires existing or arising during the period (click or tap on map to view full sized)

Although the relationship between Britain and Asante is one of advantageous mutual trade, some of the southernmost Asante provinces have gradually turned to the British for protection following the ending of the slave trade and the migration of people away from the capital.

Now Asante decides that it wants firmer, more direct control of these wayward provinces, but to have the kingdom strong and fully in control of all trade is not in Britain's best interests. The two sides begin to manoeuvre for superiority.

1865

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1865

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1865 - 1867

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1867 - 1872

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1871

British influence over the Gold Coast increases further when Elmina Castle is purchased, this being the last of the Dutch forts along the coast. The Asante, who for years have considered the Dutch at Elmina to be their allies, now lose their last trade outlet to the sea. To prevent this loss and to ensure that their revenue stream continues, an invasion of the coast is planned for the following year.

Elima Castle was the last of the Dutch forts on Ghana's Gold Coast, and it passed peacefully into British hands in 1871, ending Dutch involvement in the region

1872

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1872

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1872 - 1873

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1873

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1873 - 1874

Major-general. British governor of the Gold Coast.

1873 - 1874

As tensions mount between Asante and the British, the Asante take several Europeans hostage. This is the signal for the Third Ashanti War. In February 1874, Under Wolseley's command British troops march into Kumasi, the first foreign troops to do so.

They burn it to the ground and Asante is forced to accept the loss of its southern provinces. In August 1874 these provinces become part of British Gold Coast colony. The Asante remove Kofi Karikari from the throne following his defeat and replace him with Mensa Bonsu.

The Third Ashanti War was the result of Asante raiding and its refusal to give up slave trading, something which Britain was determined to stamp out, so a campaign was carefully planned and conducted to ensure British military victory

1874

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1874

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1874 - 1876

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1876

Acting British governor for the second time.

1876 - 1878

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1878 - 1879

Acting British governor for the third time.

1879 - 1880

British governor for the second time.

1880 - 1881

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1880s

Having lost much of its prestige with the comprehensive defeat of 1874, the Asante kingdom is heading towards civil war as other provinces demand more freedom, or simply detach themselves from the confederation to seek closer ties with Gold Coast.

King Mensa Bonsu undertakes punitive expeditions seemingly only as part of his own pursuit of gold and women, and two attempts to dethrone him are made (1877 and 1880), with the third being successful in 1883. The Asante Civil War follows almost immediately and lasts for five years.

Despite the defeat and dehtronement of King Kofi Karikari his successor, Prempeh, reverted to traditional Ashanti customs and, when the British colonial secretary wanted to open up the area to settlement in the 1890s, further military expeditions were required to secure Asante's cooperation

1881 - 1884

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1884 - 1885

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1885 - 1895

British governor for the second time (first time acting).

1886

The Gold Coast colony is administratively divided in two on 13 January 1886. The Lagos colonial holding is established as a separately-administered formation after having been taken from native control in 1861.

1888

The Asante empire has been managed since 1884 by an interim council until 1887 and then by a regent. Now the various factions in the Asante Civil War agree to a peaceful settlement which sees a new asantehene ascend the throne, the sixteen year-old Prempeh I (originally known as Prince Kwaku Dua III prior to becoming king).

1895 - 1897

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1895 - 1896

With fighting against Gold Coast continuing to break out, Britain decides that Asante should become part of the British protectorate. King Prempeh refuses to accede of course, so another British expedition reaches Kumasi after a hard-fought campaign, this time under Colonel Sir Francis Scott.

Asantehene Prempeh I is shown in this photograph having arrived in the Seychelles, having been transferred there from Sierra Leone during his exile of 1896-1925

The Fourth Ashanti War sees Prempeh forced to accept exile, along with his immediate family and some close advisors. They are given passage to Sierra Leone where they remain for three years before being moved to the Seychelles. The removal of the asantehene stops dead in its tracks Asante's resurgence.

Protection is now extended by the British to the 'Northern Territories' whose trade with the coast had formerly been controlled by Asante. This is prompted primarily by the need to forestall the French and Germans, who have been making rapid advances in the surrounding areas.

1897 - 1900

British governor of the Gold Coast (acting until May 1898).

1898

Britain and France resolve a crisis which has been brought on thanks to a military confrontation in the middle Niger region. As a result the two powers partition this part of Africa on 14 June 1898. This affects Gold Coast when France withdraws from the state of Wa, while Britain abandons its claim to Mossi, although Mossi's capital is declared a free city which is available to both sides.

The Benin empire in West Africa was one of the region's biggest and richest, although it suffered at the hands of European colonial forces

1900

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1900 - 1904

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1902

Asante is forcibly incorporated by Britain into its Gold Coast crown colony (it having gained this status on 26 September 1901), along with the Northern Territories, which had not belonged to the kingdom itself.

Having already amicably demarcated the boundaries between the Northern Territories and the surrounding French and German colonies (in 1898 and 1899), the Northern Territories are now proclaimed a British protectorate. Save for the later addition of British Togoland, this creates borders for the colony which are essentially those of modern Ghana.

1904

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1904 - 1910

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1910

Acting British governor for the second time.

1910 - 1912

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1912

Acting British governor for the third time.

1912 - 1919

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1919

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1919 - 1927

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1925 - 1927

The first legislative council elections take place in Gold Coast, and Asante's King Prempeh is allowed to return to his homeland. Provincial councils of chiefs are established in all three of the colony's territories, partly to give the various native chiefs a colony-wide function.

George V steered Britain through the First World War and also ensured that the House of Windsor would survive at a time at which most of Europe's great monarchies were falling

This move is followed in 1927 by the promulgation of the 'Native Administration Ordinance', which replaces an 1883 arrangement that had placed chiefs in the Gold Coast colony under British supervision. The purpose is to clarify and to regulate the powers and areas of jurisdiction of chiefs and councils.

1927

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1927

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1927 - 1932

British governor for the second time (the first time acting).

1932

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1932 - 1934

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1934

Acting British governor for the second time.

1934 - 1941

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1935

The 'Native Authorities Ordinance' combines the central colonial government and the local authorities into a single governing system. New native authorities, appointed by the governor, are given wide powers of local government under the supervision of the central government's provincial commissioners. They provide assurance that their policies will be those of the central government.

Twentieth century colonial Ghana witnessed a gradual shifting of the native population from rural areas into the cities, and a reasonably good infrastructure for them when they got there

1941 - 1942

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1942 - 1947

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1948 - 1949

British governor of the Gold Coast.

1949

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1949

Acting British governor of the Gold Coast.

1949

British governor for the second time (the first time acting).

1949 - 1957

British governor. Became first post-colonial governor-general.

1956 - 1957

The British half of Togoland, a thin strip of territory running the length of the Gold Coast's eastern border along and above Lake Volta, elects to join Gold Coast via a plebiscite which is pushed by the United Nations in 1956. The following year modern Ghana is formed from the merger of these two colonial possessions.

Kwame Nkrumah, first president of an independent Ghana, proclaims Ghanaian independence at midnight on 6 March 1957, although he would be deposed just nine years later