Far East Kingdoms

Modern Mongolia (Outer Mongolia)
AD 1911 - Present Day
Incorporating Heads of State (1911-2025), Bogdan Khaan Autonomous Monarchy (1911-1924), Autonomous People's Republic (1924-1945), Independent People's Republic (1945-1990), & Independent Republic (1990-On)

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The Central Asian state of Mongolia also used to be referred to as Outer Mongolia, especially in the early years of its existence when it needed to be differentiated from republican Chinese-controlled Inner Mongolia. It was also labelled the Bogdan Khaan state until 1924. The latter name came from the title of its ruler, allegedly a reincarnated lama. The country is neighboured to the north by Russia and on all other sides by China.

Mongols emerged as an amalgam of regional Turkic and Mongol-Tungusic groups in north-eastern Central Asia. They briefly became powerful around 1130, defeating their neighbouring tribes and forcing the Jin to pay tribute. They were destroyed by the neighbouring Tartars in 1160 and their clans fought each other for local superiority. Mongol power collapsed until a new figurehead could be found to reunite the clans.

A powerful clan leader named Yesukhei did much to rebuild Mongol unity in the late twelfth century AD. His son, Temujin, campaigned outwards to unite many more steppe nomads during the first two decades of the thirteenth century. Success bred more success and, by the time he died in 1227, Temujin was better known as the Great Mongol warlord, Chingiz Khan.

The empire he built effectively ceased to exist following the death in 1294 of the great Yuan khan, Kublai Khan, and its separate territories thereafter gradually fragmented. The Yuan were expelled from China in 1368 and further tribal fragmentation followed, along with increasing domination by Ming China.

A rump Northern Yuan dynasty nominally continued Mongol rule in what is now eastern Mongolia, but generally the Mongols descended into an assortment of feudal states and tribal entities. In the late seventeenth century the Dzungars became the dominant force in the region, but even they became fragmented in the face of Chinese hostility.

Please note that the History Files does not regularly monitor changes in modern heads of state or their representatives. Get in touch here if this section requires updating.

(Information by John De Cleene and the John De Cleene Archive, with additional information by Peter Kessler, from Asia in the Modern World, Claude A Buss (Macmillan Publishing Company, 1964), from Hammond's Historical Atlas (C S Hammond & Co, 1963), from The Mongols, David Morgan (Basil Blackwell, 1986), from Times Atlas of World History, Geoffrey Barraclough (Ed, Maplewood, New Jersey, 1979), from Washington Post (6 April 1996, and 6 April 1997), and from External Links: Francis opens clinic on the first papal visit to Mongolia (Associated Press), and Mongolia (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Mongolia (Rulers.org), and Mongolia (World Statesmen), and Mongolia (Zárate's Political Collections (ZPC)).)

1911 - 1919

Mongol khan (Jebtsun Damba Khutukhta). Deposed.

1911

The Khalkhas break away from republican Chinese domination to establish a fully independent Mongolia, one which includes Inner Mongolia and Tannu Tuva. Sovereignty is given to Bogdo Gegen Khan, the eighth and final jebtsun damba khutukhta, or bogd khaan (the chief reincarnated 'Living Buddha') of Urga (Ulaanbaator).

From its initial phase the country is an imperial Russian protectorate until the Russian revolution, and then a protectorate of the Russian successor state, the Soviet Union.

In 1911 reform-minded elites in the Qing empire led an uprising which championed new ideas when it came to individual rights, equality, and popular sovereignty, ending more than two millennia of imperial rule

1912 - 1915

China officially recognises Mongolia's autonomy in 1912. Russia agrees to this autonomy, which prevents Outer Mongolia from unifying with Inner Mongolia to its immediate south. China and Russia compel Mongolia to accept autonomy in 1915 under Chinese governance, while Russia absorbs Tannu Tuva.

1919 - 1921

China annexes Mongolia and deposes Bogdo Gegen Khan in 1919. An underground movement begins which is allied to the Russian Bolsheviks. Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, a White Russian rebel, leads a rebellion against Chinese and Soviet rule in 1921, and seizes control over Mongolia. The baron restores Bogdo Gegen Khan, but only as his own puppet.

1921 - 1924

Restored Mongol khan but under control.

1921

With the help of Mongol revolutionaries, the Soviet capture and execute the baron and retain the khan as a constitutional monarch. The Mongolian 'People's Revolutionary Party' (the Communist party) becomes the real ruler of Mongolia (shown below in red), controlling the country until 1990 and ensuring that Mongolia remains a Soviet satellite state.

This nineteenth century illustration depicting a Mongol gur being transported by cart provides a small sense of the traditional ways which were still largely the norm in early twentieth century Mongolia

1921

Communist party leader (May-Sep only).

1921 - 1922

Party leader. Also prime minister. Executed.

1922

During the intense competition between nationalists and communists, Bodoo and his ally, Dambdyn Chagdarjav, one of the founders of communist Mongolia, are accused of counterrevolutionary activities and are executed.

1922 - 1923

Party leader.

1923 - 1924

Party leader. Executed for 'bourgeois tendencies'.

1924

When the khan dies in 1924, Mongolia officially becomes a communist people's republic. Power in the country is usually shared by the head of state, the head of government, and the party head, with the party leader generally the highest authority.

Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev (centre-left) marks fifty years of the 'Mongolian People's Republic' alongside Mongolia's communist leader, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal (centre-right) in Ulan Bator on 1 November 1974

1924 - 1928

Party leader for the second time.

1928 - 1932

Joint party leader.

1928 - 1930

Joint party leader.

1928 - 1932

Joint leader. Head of state & gov (1924-1927/1932-1936).

1930 - 1932

Joint party leader.

1932

The creation of herding communes, a matter which had been initiated in 1924, and the expropriation of private property are abandoned after repeated popular insurrections and disapproval by the 'Comintern'. The new programme requires a reshuffling of the joint party leadership.

1932 - 1937

Joint party leader for the second time.

1932 - 1933

Joint party leader.

1932 - 1937

Joint party leader.

1933 - 1936

Having already annexed Manchuria, Japan now claims Mongolia as part of the puppet state of Manchukuo. Clashes between Mongolian and Japanese troops prompt the USSR formally to adopt a mutual defence alliance with Mongolia.

Livestock still graze the pastures (here in central north-eastern Mongolia) in what largely remains a pastoral society

Japan continues to expand closer to Mongolia and, in 1937, declares war on China. Insecure communists initiate purges of perceived enemies of all types. The roundups continue into the 1940s and ultimately produce the deaths of some thirty-five thousand people, about half of them Buddhist lamas.

1934 - 1936

Joint party leader.

1936 - 1940

Joint party leader.

1939 - 1940

Joint party leader.

1939

The Soviets under General Zhukov decisively repulse a Japanese invasion of north-eastern Mongolia. Japan abandons its plans for an invasion of the USSR and instead turns its expansionist attention towards South-East Asia where it is active during the Second World War.

Japanese evacuation from Guadalcanal was largely successful thanks to bombing attacks on the US fleet, with very few Japanese troops surrendering to the allies, but it marked the beginning of a series of setbacks for Japan

1940 - 1954

Party leader. Head of government & state (1952-1974-1984).

1941 - 1945

After Nazi Germany invades the USSR in 1941, Mongolia provides food and other material support and money to its sponsor. Just before the end of the war, in August 1945 Mongolia joins the Soviet Union in declaring war on Japan.

Mongolian troops have advanced into China beyond the Great Wall by the time Japan surrenders. Afterwards, Mongolia formally attains independence from China, in the form of the 'Independent People's Republic' which remains, in effect, a Soviet vassal state.

1954

Dashiyn Damba overthrows Yumiaagiyn Tsedenbal to claim the title of 'first secretary of the communist party', the new title for the party leader.

1954 - 1958

Party leader for the second time.

1950s

Mongolia collectivises its livestock herding along Soviet patterns. Herders must turn over their animals to cooperative farms. The Trans-Mongolian Railway is completed in 1955.

Joseph Stalin, who was born in Georgia, led the Soviet Union away from its initial idealistic concept of equal citizenship for all and instead instituted a brutal regime of fear

1958

Yumjaagiyn Tsedenbal regains control over the communist party. Damba is dismissed for allegedly violating ideological principles, but overall the power struggle is worthy of any Mongol khan.

1958 - 1984

Party leader. Overthrown and fled to USSR.

1974 - 1984

Tsedenbal adds the position of head of state to his other responsibilities, but gives the chairmanship of the council of ministers (the equivalent of a prime minister) to Jambyn Batmönkh.

Tsedenbal consolidates his power through a series of purges and the expansion of totalitarianism. Nevertheless, while Tsedenbal is holidaying in Moscow in 1984, Batmönkh overthrows him and takes over the party leadership.

1984 - 1990

Party leader. Head of government & state (1974-1984-1990).

1984 -1990

Any celebration of Great Khan Chingiz Khan has been discouraged by the Soviets who still nurse grievances about thirteenth century Mongol ravages of the Rus principalities. However, such celebrations are now pursued within Mongolia in the face of weakening Soviet authority.

This portrait shows Chingiz Khan in his later years, by which time he had built up an empire which covered much of eastern and Central Asia, as well as stretching into Eastern Europe

A democracy movement develops and it is this which forces Batmönkh's resignation in 1990. Gombojavyn Ochirbat replaces him, but can only hold onto power for a few months before he too has to give way as Mongolia adopts new constitutional provisions and a multiparty system of government.

1990

Party leader.

1990

With the fall of the Soviet Union, as with most countries in its orbit, Mongolia formally abandons communism. The Mongolian 'People's Revolutionary Party' becomes a non-communist political party which retains power, especially in the legislature, but the party leader no longer rules the country.

1990 - 1997

President. Candidate of democratic parties.

1991 - 1992

The last trainload of Soviet military equipment departs in 1991. The last Soviet troops leave in 1992. Attempts to revive the ancient Mongolian script and even the Latin alphabet are abandoned in favour of retaining the Cyrillic which had been imposed by the Soviets in the 1940s. Mongolian script is taught in schools but has not achieved popular use.

The Chernobyl disaster and the subsequent attempted cover-up by the Soviet authorities was the spark which brought down the already-fragile USSR, allowing Belarus amongst many other subject territories to gain its independence

The dalai lama in 1992 recognises the ninth javzandamba khutagt (reincarnated Buddha) as Buddhism experiences a revival. The new lama visits Mongolia in 1999 and 2009 from his home in India, and the dalai lama himself visits several times, all to the immense disapproval of China.

1997 - 2005

President.

1997

Bagabandi, chairman of the Mongolian 'People's Revolutionary Party (the former communists), is elected president and gives up his party position.

2000

A joint declaration with Russia prohibits either party from entering into political and military alliances against the other, but also stifles a Mongolian 'third neighbour' initiative upon which Mongolia has already embarked in order to secure closer ties with the United States.

Vladimir Putin, a former KGB lieutenant-colonel, came to power in 2000 and was determined to hold onto it in the fashion of the former imperial family, whether from the 'throne' itself or behind the scenes due to the restrictions of the constitution

2002

Constitutional amendments are approved in order to simplify the appointment of prime ministers. The amendments allow a prime minister to hold a seat in the Mongolian 'Grand Khural', which has not previously been allowed.

Since the khural selects prime ministers anyway, such work has required quite a bit of manoeuvring and has even created room for presidential interference in the selection process. Now Nambaryn Enkhbayar of the Mongolian 'People's Revolutionary Party' becomes prime minister after his party gains all but four seats.

2005 - 2009

President. Former prime minister (2002-2004).

2008

Riots in Ulaanbaator result in the burning of the Mongolian 'People's Revolutionary Party' headquarters. Five are killed. Prime Minister Sanj Bayar is forced to form a coalition with the 'Democratic Party', although he has a majority in the Mongolian 'Grand Khural'. He is subsequently re-elected in 2009 but has to resign due to illness.

Modern Ulaanbaator is a rapidly-growing city which is gradually converting Mongolia's traditionally pastoral society, with around half the nation's population living here by the early 2020s

2009 - 2017

President. First 'Democratic Party' president.

2010

Mongolia's debt to Russia is forgiven, aside from a token amount. This debt has previously been insisted upon by Russia for all of the Soviet support which had been provided after the Second World War. The Mongolian 'People's Revolutionary Party' changes its name to the 'Mongolian People's Party', while a breakaway faction retains the old party name and is now referred to as the new MPRP.

2017 - 2021

President.

2019

The constitution is amended to eliminate four-year presidential terms which allow a president to serve more than once. Such is replaced by a single six-year term after which the president cannot run for re-election.

President Ukhnaa Khürelsükh served as Mongolia's thirtieth and thirty-first prime minister before becoming president, chairman of the National Security Council, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces

2021 - 2027

President.

2023

Pope Francis makes the first ever papal visit to Mongolia, a country which has only a tiny Catholic population. Whilst there he opens a clinic for the homeless. His visit annoys China, whose diplomatic relations Vatican City had terminated shortly after the communist triumph in China in 1949.