Far East Kingdoms

Mongol Khans of the Yuan Dynasty
AD 1294 - 1368

Mongol Tribes All Modern States Central Asia China Korea

The Mongols appear to have been born out of an amalgam of native Turkic and Tungusic groups in north-eastern Central Asia and East Asia. Early Turkic groups display an affinity with or links to Indo-Iranian tribes, as well as to proto-Mongol groups. The famous Mongol foundation epic, the Secret History of the Mongols, states that the Mongols reached the steppe from over the 'Tengis' - the sea or lake - twenty-two generations before the birth of Genghis Khan in AD 1162.

Mongols briefly became powerful in what is today's Mongolia around 1130, defeating neighbouring tribes and forcing the Jin to pay tribute. In 1160 they were destroyed, only to be rebuilt half a century later by 'Chingiz Khan', who became the first of the 'Great Khans' of the Mongol empire.

He created a vast steppe-based empire which integrated itself into several neighbouring states. His death in 1227 created the basis for the later sub-division of the empire, something which increasing internal feuding would ensure. In 1246, Batu Khan converted his territories into a khanate which became known as the Blue Horde. His brothers did the same to form the White Horde and the Shaibanids.

The powerful Kublai Khan retained China as his main base during his civil war against his brother in 1260-1264, implying (or perhaps establishing) it as the most important Mongol possession. It was only a matter of time before China became central to the great khans, and the Mongol dynasty there was christened the Yuan by Kublai Khan in 1279, from which time he was emperor of the Chinese as well as great khan of the Mongols (see feature link). The centre of the Mongol empire shifted with him to China, fragmenting its authority farther west.

His death in 1294 ended any pretence at unity. Still acknowledged as being great khan during his lifetime, his priorities had clearly not been with the western steppe parts of the empire. The various hordes were being ruled on an all-but independent basis even then. Now they were fully independent, along with the Il-Khanate, and those Mongols who dominated the eponymous Mughulistan.

The Yuan Mongols now ruled only in China, Mongolia, southern Siberia, and Tibet. Mongolia itself was governed in the khan's name by the nominated heir to the imperial throne, who resided in Karakorum.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson, from The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and his Legacy, Peter Brent (Book Club Associates, 1976), from The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction, Morris Rossabi (Oxford University Press, 2012), from the BBC documentary, The Secret History of Genghis Khan, broadcast 28 December 2011), from the New World Encyclopaedia, from Crimean Tatars, H B Paksoy, from The Origins of Northern China's Ethnicities, Zhu Xueyuan (Beijing 2004), from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), from Genghis Khan, Paul Ratchnevsky (Thomas Nivison Haining, Trans & Ed, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1991), and from External Links: Origins of the Volga Tatars, and Tatar.net (dead link), and The True Origin of the Mongols?, John Man (Oxford Alumni, 28 July 2020).)

1294 - 1307

Grandson of Kublai Khan. Yuan emperor. Ch'eng Tsung (1295).

1295

Following his accession, Mahmud Ghazan of the Il-Khanate accepts Islam, marking a departure in the politics of Mongol territories in the Near East. From this point onwards, despite Ghazan maintaining strong links with the Yuan, the Il-Khanate becomes increasingly Islamicised, turning away from its Mongol origins.

Kublai Khan gradually conquered the various regions of medieval China to establish a separate Mongol dynasty there known as the Yuan, although he remained the figurative head of the Mongol empire

1301

Thanks to the support of Kaidu of Mughulistan for the opposing faction in the White Horde dynastic conflict, Buyan has won support both from Great Khan Temur and Mahmud Ghazan of the Il-Khanate. Temur now organises a response against Kaidu, ending with the latter's defeat at the bloody Battle of the River Zawkhan. Kaidu dies shortly afterwards.

1304

The Chaghatayids under Du'a and Chapar, son of Kaidu, the Golden Horde under Toqta, and the Il-Khanate under Mahmud Ghazan negotiate peace with Temur Khan so that trade and diplomatic relations are not harmed by constant bickering and fighting. The Yuan emperor is also accepted as the nominal overlord of the three junior Mongol states.

As is customary (but not always observed in recent times), Temur designates Öljeytu as the new Il-Khan. Soon afterwards, the former allies Du'a and Chapar fall out over the territory they control within Mughulistan, so Temur backs the rightful ruler, Du'a, and sends a large army into the region in 1306, forcing Chapar to surrender.

The Chaghatayids made peace with Temur Khan, the great khan of the Mongol empire, to end the constant bickering between the Mongol khanates

1307 - 1311

Son of Darmabala. Yuan emperor. Wu Tsung in 1308.

1308 - 1309

The Seljuq sultanate of Rum collapses and the area is ruled through regional governors by the Mongols. In the same year, Qayshan nominates Ch'ungson as the successor to King Ch'unguyol of the Koryo kingdom.

In addition, the rebellious Chapar and his key supporters in Mughulistan appear before Qayshan to submit to him, ending the threat posed by them to stability in the Yuan empire.

1311 - 1320

Brother. Half Korean. Yuan emperor. Jen Tsung in 1312.

1311

Following the death of Qayshan and the succession of Ayurparibhadra, their mother, Dagi, leads the aggressive Khunggiad faction in the Yuan imperial court to purge it of Qayshan's officials and supporters. Qayshan's son and Ayurparibhadra's agreed successor, Toq-Temur, is driven out. Under Ayurparibhadra, the Yuan become increasingly integrated into Chinese culture.

1320 - 1323

Son. Yuan emperor. Ying Tsung in 1321. Assassinated.

1323

A promising reign under Suddhipala is cut short when he is assassinated by the embittered former followers of the late Empress Dagi. They carry out the act to avoid possible action against them for supporting Dagi and her (equally late) puppet minister, Temüder.

The Mongols in China, such as this horse archer (a typical Mongol warrior) gradually became more and more Sinicised as part of the Yuan dynasty, and more distanced from their cousins in Central Asia

The head of the assassins is Temüder's son, Tegshi. He offers the throne to Yesun-Temur, and he accepts, but not until after he has purged the court of Tegshi's faction to avoid becoming a Yuan puppet.

1323 - 1328

Yuan emperor. Tai-ting Ti in 1324.

1328

Son. Yuan emperor. Defeated by rival. Possibly murdered.

1328

Arigaba succeeds his father, installed by Yesun-Temur's Muslim aide, Dawlat Shah. Before that succession can be made official, an uprising is triggered by nobles who are dissatisfied with Yesun-Temur's monopolisation of power under a few select and very powerful officials.

Arigaba leads an army against them but their commander, a Mongolised Kipchak general named El Temür, defeats them. The Yuan capital is seized by El Temür and Jayaatu Khan while Arigaba disappears, presumably murdered.

This nineteenth century illustration depicting a Mongol gur being transported by cart provides a small sense of the traditional ways which were championed by Chagatai and his followers

1328 - 1329

Son of Qayshan. Yuan emperor. Ming Tsung in 1329.

1328 - 1329

During the successful campaign by El Temür and Jayaatu Khan to capture the Yuan throne, Qoshila Qutuqtu begins his own campaign against them in Mongolia. He enters Mongolia from the Tarbagatai region of the Khangai Mountains with support from the Chaghatayid khans, Eljigedey and Du'a Temur.

The nobles of Mongolia also support him, so he has himself declared emperor on 27 February at a location to the north of Karakorum. Jayaatu Khan recognises that he has been defeated and now abdicates.

1329

Yuan emperor. Wen Tsung(?) in 1330. Died suddenly.

1329

Ruling as Khutughtu Khan, Qoshila accepts Jayaatu Khan as his heir and the two meet at a banquet. The new khan is busy filling Yuan positions with his own people so it seems likely that it is El Temür who is responsible for his unexpected death just four days after the banquet.

A Mongol warrior defends himself against a Red Turban Army warrior of Goryeo, with his characteristic red headband

This is probably because he fears losing his own power and influence to other Mongols and Chaghatayids (however, conflicting sources state that the khan's own son, Toghan-Temur, is responsible). Now Jayaatu Khan is able to resume his position on the throne after the briefest of interludes.

1329 - 1332

Restored as Khutughtu Khan's Yuan emperor heir.

1332

Jayaatu Khan's own son and designated heir, Aratnadara, has already died just just a month after being nominated in 1331. As a result, Jayaatu nominates Toghan-Temur as his heir. El Temür resists this as it is Toghan-Temur who is strongly suspected of murdering his father (lending support to the alternative report for this event in 1329). Instead, Toghan-Temur's younger brother, Rinchenpal, is nominated, and duly succeeds upon Jayaatu's death.

1332 - 1333

Son of Qoshila. Aged 6 at accession. Died 53 days later.

1333 - 1368

Brother. Shun Ti in 1333. Fled China to be Northern Yuan khan.

1336

The Mongol Jalayirid sultanate establishes itself in southern and western Persia, ruling Persia itself through puppets. They also take control of those areas of former Rum which have not yet been conquered by the expanding Ottomans.

Shown here are two sides of a rare coin which was issued during the brief early fourteenth century 'reign' of Musa, a direct descendant of the powerful Il-Khan ruler, Hulegu, but himself a puppet

1368

The Mongols are expelled from China by Chu Yüan-chang when he captures Dadu (modern Beijing). Toghan-Temur flees to Mongolia, while Chu Yüan-chang seizes the throne and is proclaimed the first Ming emperor of a reunited China.

This act effectively dissolves the remaining parts of the 'Great Mongol' empire.

The surviving khanates, the Blue Horde, White Horde, and Chaghatayids (the Il-Khans have already fallen), are now ruled as entirely independent kingdoms in their own right. The descendents of Kublai Khan and the great khans continue to rule locally in Mongolia as the Northern Yuan.

With the loss of China, the Mongols gradually returned to the old ways over the course of several generations of feuding and jostling for control