Far East Kingdoms

Chaghatayids / Jagatai-ids (Mongols) (Mughulistan)
AD 1227 - 1363

Mongol Tribes All Modern States Central Asia China Korea

The Mongols appear to have been born out of an amalgam of native Turkic and Tungusic groups in north-eastern Central Asia and East Asia. The famous Mongol foundation epic, the Secret History of the Mongols, states that the Mongols reached the steppe from over the 'Tengis' - the sea or lake - twenty-two generations before the birth of 'Chingiz Khan' in AD 1162.

This famous figure, Chingiz Khan, was the first of the 'Great Khans' of the Mongol empire. His death in 1227 created the basis for the empire's later sub-division, something which increasing internal feuding would ensure. Ogedei was the selected successor to Chingiz Khan, and was officially proclaimed great khan in 1229. While he and his successors still controlled the entire empire, they largely concentrated their attention on Mongolia and Yuan China. The rest was governed by the other sons of Chingiz.

The north-western section was handed to Jochi and it was Jochi's son, Batu Khan, who inherited the westernmost section of this ulu as the Blue Horde, with Orda leading the eastern section as the White Horde (collectively known as the Golden Horde). Another brother controlled the Shaibanids, Tolui governed the Il-Khanate, and Chagatai Khan (the second son) inherited Central Asian territory for his Chaghatayids.

In time this became known as Mughulistan (Moghulistan or Moghalistan), the territory of the Mughals or Mongols. This name is still used informally to designate a wide expanse of Central Asia outside modern national borders. The region should not be confused with the Mughal empire of India which was founded in the sixteenth century.

The Chaghatayid khanate encompassed a vast expanse of territory in its early days. The lands it inherited from the Mongol empire included what is now northern Afghanistan (but which had most recently belonged to the Ghurid sultanate), Central Asia, Kashgaria, Lake Balkhash, and Zhetysu.

After 1363 it became divided into two halves, with the ancient region of Transoxiana forming the conquered western section (bordering the Il-Khanate) and the still-nomadic but free Chaghatayids still holding the east (modern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and eastern areas of Mongolia and China).

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by John De Cleene and the John De Cleene Archive, from Mannerheim, Stig Axel Fridolf Jägerskiöld, from Tamerlane and the symbolism of sovereignty, Beatrice Forbes Manz (Iranian Studies 21 (1-2), 1988), from Timurids, The Columbia Encyclopaedia (Sixth Ed, Columbia University), from The Encyclopaedia of War: Timur ('the Lame') (1336-1405), Timothy May, from The Art of War: Great Commanders of the Ancient and Medieval World: Tamerlane, Justin Marozzi (Andrew Roberts, Ed, Quercus Military History, 2008), from The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and his Legacy, Peter Brent (Book Club Associates, 1976), from The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction, Morris Rossabi (Oxford University Press, 2012), from the New World Encyclopaedia, from The Origins of Northern China's Ethnicities, Zhu Xueyuan (Beijing 2004), from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), from Genghis Khan, Paul Ratchnevsky (Thomas Nivison Haining, Trans & Ed, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1991), from The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, René Grousset (Naomi Walford (Trans), Rutgers University Press, 1970), and from External Links: The True Origin of the Mongols?, John Man (Oxford Alumni, 28 July 2020), and Timur (Encyclopaedia Britannica).)

1227 - 1244

Son of Great Khan Chingiz Khan.

1227

Chagatai makes Almaliq his capital (a remote location in the very east of his domains, near modern Yining in north-western China). He governs a wide swathe of Central Asian territory which reaches from the border of Il-Khan Transoxiana in the west over to the edges of Mongolia and contemporary China.

This nineteenth century illustration depicting a Mongol gur being transported by cart provides a small sense of the traditional ways which were championed by Chagatai and his followers

1244

Chagatai's death leaves the khanate weakened, and dominated by the Mongol great khans. They appoint Chaghatayid khans as they please. Although the border with Il-Khan Transoxiana is considered to be part of this khanate's territories, governors of the cities there are appointed directly by the great khan. This subservience to Karakorum lasts until the accession of Alughu.

Although the circumstances are not entirely clear, it seems that while the Chaghatayids control Turkestan and Transoxiana, the regions of Aksu, Kashghar, Khotan, Yarkand, and the southern slopes of the Tian Shan mountain range are hived off.

This region later forms a province which lies to the south of the line of the Tian Shan (and which is now known as Eastern Turkestan). It appears to be granted to the Dughlat clan as hereditary chiefs (amirs), creating an increasingly powerful division which eventually dominates later Mughulistan.

The River Oxus, which cut through its eponymous region of Transoxiana, was used as a demarcation border throughout history and was also a hub of activity in prehistoric times

1244 - 1246

Grandson. A minor at accession. First rule.

1244 - 1246

Widow of Chagatai & regent. Effectively deposed by Guyuk.

1246 - 1251

Appointed by Great Khan Guyuk.

1251

The disinherited Qara Hulegu wins the favour of Great Khan Mongke and is restored to his throne. The displaced Yesu Mongke is exiled by the great khan to the court of the Blue Horde, where he is executed. Unfortunately, Qara Hulegu dies before he can reach his capital. Instead, his Oirat wife, Orqina Khatun, acts as regent for their young son.

1251 - 1252

Second rule. Died before reaching his capital.

1252 - 1260

Son. Acceded as a minor and then deposed.

1252 - 1260

Mother and regent. Deposed.

1260 - 1264

The Mongol empire is engulfed in two simultaneous civil wars: Hulegu of the Il-Khanate and Berke of the Blue Horde in the west, and Kublai and Ariq-Boke in the east. Both Kublai and Ariq-Boke are elected great khan in 1260 at two separate khuriltai, with Kublai basing himself in China and Ariq-Boke at Karakorum.

Inheriting the Persian section of the Mongol empire through his father, Tolui, Hulegu Khan led the devastating attack which ended the Islamic caliphate at Baghdad, but he also brought the eastern Persian territories under his firm control (he is seen here with his wife)

When Kublai is victorious in 1264, he retains China as his main base, implying (or perhaps establishing) it as the most important Mongol possession. Alughu is appointed to take control of the Chaghatayid khanate by Ariq-Boke, deposing Orqina Khatun in the process.

1260 - 1266

Grandson of Chagatai.

1262

After several battles between Alughu, who has sided with Kublai Khan, and Orqina and one Masud Beg, who are fighting on the side of Ariq-Boke, the latter arranges peace negotiations between the two sides.

Alughu then takes advantage of the unstable situation by revolting against Ariq-Boke's rule of the west and gaining the allegiance of the governors of Transoxiana. He also ends up marrying Orqina, and Masud Beg is appointed viceroy of Central Asia, probably with a seat in Transoxiana as the very governor whom Alughu needs to support him.

The Mongols in China, such as this horse archer (a typical Mongol warrior) gradually became more and more Sinicised, and more distanced from their cousins in Central Asia

1266

Restored following death of step-father. Converted to Islam.

1266

When the defeated Ariq-Boke dies just two years after losing his struggle for the great khanship, his side of the struggle against Kublai Khan is continued by Kaidu. As khan of the Chaghatayids, Mubarak's accession has been without the approval of Kublai Khan, who now dominates the Mongol empire.

His favourite for the post is Baraq, and the Chaghatayid army is soon won over. Mubarak is exiled and he dies in 1276 while fighting in Il-Khanate domains.

1266 - 1271

Son of Yesünto'a, and great-grandson of Chagatai.

1267 - 1268/69

Baraq repudiates the overlordship of Kublai Khan and ravages Khotan. The size of his standing army makes impossible a military intervention by Kublai, so in 1268 he secures a peaceful agreement with Baraq so that the problem which is presented by Kaidu can be faced.

Kublai Khan gradually conquered the various regions of medieval China to establish a separate Mongol dynasty there known as the Yuan, although he remained the figurative head of the Mongol empire

That problem advances on Baraq, but the khan sets a trap which inflicts a defeat upon Kaidu's forces on the banks of the Jaxartes. A second battle near Khujand sees Kaidu the victor while he is allied with Mengu-Timur of the Blue Horde.

He is then able to ravage Transoxiana, and Baraq flees first to Samarkand and then Bukhara, plundering cities along the way as he rebuilds his forces. An alarmed Kaidu agrees a temporary truce between the two, in 1269 (although 1267 is proposed as an alternative date).

Baraq retains control of two-thirds of Transoxiana while Kaidu and Mengu-Timur control the rest as the sometimes fragile peace continues. Baraq dies in 1271 following an ill-fated attack on the Il-Khanate, and Kaidu adopts a dominant position over the Chaghatayids, appointing his own puppet khans for the rest of his life.

The Mongols of the Golden Horde maintained their dominance of the eastern Rus with bloodletting where necessary, burning and destroying towns which stood against them

c.1266? - 1301

Grandson of Ogedei Khan. De facto khan.

1271 - 1272

Puppet khan. Rebelled, fled, and killed.

1272 - 1282

Puppet khan. Ineffectual ruler replaced by Du'a.

c.1282 - 1301

Son of Baraq. Became sole khan (1301).

1294

With the death of Kublai Khan, the Yuan dynasty survives under his successor, but the Mongol empire effectively ceases to exist. There are no further khakhans (great khans), and command of the empire's territory is now permanently divided into four distinct and fully independent kingdoms: the Golden Horde (made up of the Blue Horde and White Horde), the Il-Khanate, Mughulistan, and Yuan China.

1301 - 1306

Sole ruler of the khanate following his father's death.

1301

Thanks to Kaidu's support of the opposing faction in the White Horde dynastic conflict, Buyan has won support both from Great Khan Temur and Mahmud Ghazan of the Il-Khanate. Temur now organises a response against Kaidu, ending with the latter's defeat at the bloody Battle of the River Zawkhan. Kaidu dies shortly afterwards.

The White Horde ruled the territory between Lake Balkhash and the Volga, while initially continuing to push westwards as part of the greater Golden Horde

1301 - 1306

Son of Kaidu. Supporter of Du'a and then opponent. Defeated.

1302

The accession of Buyan of the White Horde is far from universally accepted by his own relatives. Led by his cousin, Kobluk, they win support from Du'a. Buyan fights them on several occasions and seeks help from Toqta of the Blue Horde as the senior khan of the Golden Horde.

Toqta warns off the Chaghatayids, and supplies military help. In the end, Buyan is able to defeat his opponents and emerge victorious.

1304

The Chaghatayids under Du'a and Chapar, son of Kaidu, the Golden Horde under Toqta, and the Il-Khanate under Mahmud Ghazan negotiate peace with Temur Khan so that trade and diplomatic relations are not harmed by constant bickering and fighting. The Yuan emperor is also accepted as the nominal overlord of the three junior Mongol states.

As is customary (but not always observed in recent times), Temur designates Öljeytu as the new Il-Khan. Soon afterwards the former allies, Du'a and Chapar, fall out over the territory they control within Mughulistan, so Temur backs the rightful ruler, Du'a, and sends a large army into the region in 1306, forcing Chapar to surrender.

Shown here are two sides of a rare coin which was issued during the brief early fourteenth century 'reign' of Musa, a direct descendant of the powerful Il-Khan ruler, Hulegu, but himself a puppet

1306 - 1308

Son of Du'a. Died.

1308 - 1309

From a subsidiary line of descent. Overthrown.

1308 - 1309

The rebellious Chapar and his key supporters in Mughulistan appear before the Yuan emperor, Qayshan, to submit to him, ending the threat posed by them to stability in the Yuan empire.

In the same year, 1309, Taliqu's attempt to convert the Chaghatayids to Islam rebound. He is already unpopular as he is not a descendant of Du'a, and this final straw sees him overthrown and Kebek elected in his place. Kebek and his new-found supporters (who have switched from Taliqu) go on to defeat the sons of Kaidu in battle.

1309

Son of Du'a. First rule. Abdicated after election of Esen Buqa.

1309 - c.1320

Brother. Recognised in favour of Kebek. Died.

c.1320 - 1326

Re-elected following his brother's death.

1326

Brother. Overthrown by Du'a Temur.

1326?

Brother. Deposed by Tarmashirin.

1326

In the merry-go-round of familial throne swaps, Du'a is generally thought to hold power only for a year before being overthrown by another brother, Tarmashirin. However, the History of Yuan shows him remaining in power in 1330, referring to a letter sent to the Yuan court by Tarmashirin himself in that year to confirm his own succession.

The White Horde found itself freed of dominance by the Golden Horde in the middle of the fourteenth century but political in-fighting destroyed any hope of real power

1326? - 1334

Brother. Converted to Islam. Deposed.

1328 - 1329

During the successful campaign by El Temür and Jayaatu Khan to capture the Yuan throne, Qoshila Qutuqtu begins his own campaign against them in the Mongol heartland. He enters Mongolia from the Tarbagatai region of the Khangai Mountains with support from Eljigedey and Du'a Temur.

The nobles of Mongolia also support him, so he has himself declared emperor on 27 February at a location to the north of Karakorum. Jayaatu Khan recognises that he has been defeated and abdicates.

1329

Ruling as Khutughtu Khan, Qoshila accepts Jayaatu Khan as his heir and the two meet at a banquet. The new khan is busy filling Yuan positions with his own people so it seems likely that it is El Temür who is responsible for his unexpected death just four days after the banquet, probably because he fears losing his own power and influence to other Mongols and Chaghatayids. Now Jayaatu Khan is able to resume his position on the throne after the briefest of interludes.

The Iron Gates (shown here), are part of a narrow but popular linking route between Samarkand (in the north) and Bactra (to its south) in the Baba-tag Mountains (close to modern Derbent - click or tap on image to read more on a separate page)

1334

Tarmashirin is deposed. Taking flight, he is killed by princes of the eastern Chaghatayids while near Samarkand. The khanate becomes increasingly unstable under his successors.

1334

Son of Du'a Temur. Overthrown.

1334 - 1338

Grandson of Du'a. Murdered by Yesun Temur.

1335

Abu Said Ala ad Dunya wa dDin is the last of the Il-Khans to be descended from Hulegu, the first Il-Khan ruler in 1256. His death in 1335 (or 1336) weakens the khanate, but the same date is sometimes used to mark the birth of a Turkic-Mongol by the name of Tîmûr-i Lang (Tamerlane).

This Chaghatayid prince will one day attempt to reform the Mongol empire as a Timurid possession, although his birth most likely takes place in the late 1320s.

Shown here are the two sides of a Chaghatayid dinar which was issued during the very brief reign of Muhammad ibn Pulad (circa 1342-1343)

c.1338 - 1342

Brother. Overthrown.

c.1342

Descendant of Ögedei Khan. First Ögedeid since Kaidu.

c.1342 - 1343

Great-great-grandson of Baraq.

1343 - 1346

Son of Yasa'ur, a price who revolted in the 1310s. Killed.

1346

Qazan is killed by Qazaghan, a tribal chieftain. His death marks the end of effective Chaghatayid control of Transoxiana. Instead local Turko-Mongol tribes tribes rise to prominence and establish a loose coalition of power under the dominance of Qazaghan.

His control of the region is given a semblance of legitimacy when he raises Danishmendji, a member of the Mongol nobility, to the figurehead throne. Jani Beg of the Blue Horde takes the opportunity to achieve dominance over the Chaghatayids.

1346 - 1348

An Ögedeid. Puppet of Qazaghan and executed by him.

1348 - 1358

Grandson of Du'a. Qazaghan puppet. Killed by his successor.

1357 - 1359

With the assassination of Jani Beg, the political cohesion of the Golden Horde begins to disintegrate. Berdi Beg is probably behind Jani Beg's death, and his reign as khan is not universally accepted.

Tartars of the Crimean khanate fight Cossacks from the Ukrainian steppe, a scene which would be repeated many times over the course of the khanate's three hundred year-plus existence

The khanate goes from being able to claim titular dominance over the three ulus (Blue Horde, White Horde, and Chaghatayids) and actual dominance over the Rus of Moscow to internecine warfare and the possibility of complete dissolution.

Under the dominance of the Qara'unas in Transoxiana the Chaghatayids throw out his administrators to reassert their own independence. Soon afterwards, the Qara'unas are overthrown by Buyan Suldus and his allies, and the Chaghatayids find themselves with a new overlord.

1359

Executed by Buyan Suldus in Transoxiana.

1359 - 1363

Khan in the east from c.1347. Then supreme khan.

1363

Tughlugh Temur's attempts to quell the tribes of Transoxiana are eventually unsuccessful, despite two invasions of the region. His death ends Chaghatayid hopes of restoring control of western Mughulistan.

Instead, two tribal leaders, Amir Husayn (grandson of the Qazaghan who had killed Qazan in 1346) and Tîmûr-i Lang contest for control of Transoxiana. The latter is ultimately successful, taking Transoxiana and Khorasan in the name of the khanate, but effectively forming his own Timurid khanate.

Timur effectively recreated the ancient Persian empire through his various conquests over the course of almost forty years, subduing many competing clans and khanates which would begin competing again after his death (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1363

The original Chaghatayid khanate has been ripped apart by Timur and his Timurid khanate. He keeps his own puppet Western Chaghatayid khans in the captured half of the former khanate to legitimise his own rule, while he governs from behind the throne as amir.

The free (eastern) Chaghatayids still rule the remainder, a state of affairs which is viewed as a continuation of the original khanate despite the massive loss of territory. They are generally descendants of Chagatai Khan himself. Starting with Ilyas Khoja, son of Tughlugh Temur, they rule a very traditional Mongol state, a nomadic tribal confederacy which is made up of several clans.

Known also as the Moghul khanate, this is the origin of the name Mughulistan, which can still be applied to a large swathe of Central Asian territory today, and which remains in Mongol hands for almost the next three centuries.