European Kingdoms

Transylvania

Transylvania means 'beyond the forest'. Towards its end the Bronze Age Unetice culture grew progressively in wealth and power, until its influence reached all of continental Europe. This was the mountainous part of Dacia during the Roman empire period, before which it had been home to various tribal groups. These included the Indo-Iranian Agathyrsi tribe, a small detachment of Sindi, plus the Grauci and Sigynnae.

Around 1400 BC it expanded into the Middle Danube basin and Transylvania, and its military power controlled a great part of the European continent. Much later, parts of Transylvania were occupied by the Germanic Bastarnae in the first century BC, but this tribe was subjugated by Rome and resettled on the south bank of the Danube.

Subsequently, in the third century AD, the Germanic Goths passed through the region while the Gepids remained for a time, where they were badly disrupted by the arrival of the Huns. In later centuries, some Saxons settled in Dacia (the Roman name, which later became Transylvania), but although the language of the region's later peoples was largely Romance-derived, Transylvania was historically part of the kingdom of Hungary after King Stephen I organised it into a province in the early eleventh century AD.

Largely surrounded by mountains, especially the Carpathians to the south, the plateau of Transylvania was relatively isolated and protected from the grassy lowlands around it, through which various steppe incursions passed. The region was never physically conquered by the Ottoman empire to its south, although it was forced to accept vassal status.

More usually, though, it provided a fortified base for resistance against the Turkic conquest of south-eastern Europe. The Ottomans used the Tartars of Crimea as a mobile defensive force which ensured that Transylvania and also Wallachia were largely untroubled by attempts at renewing independence or by conquest by European kingdoms. The name most commonly associated with Transylvania is that of (Count) Dracula, who was in fact Prince Vlad of Wallachia.

1176

The Eastern Romans are defeated by the Seljuqs of Rum at the Battle of Myriocephalon (generally held to be near to Çivril in Denizli Province, western Anatolia). The empire enters a period of uncertainty and gradual decline which also affects its allies.

In the same year, the Hungarian king begins the practice of appointing voivodes (governors) to Transylvania. The voivodes and the Transylvanian diet become increasingly autonomous of Hungary during the remainder of the existence of an independent Hungarian kingdom.

1415 - 1438

Prince of Transylvania, under Hungarian suzerainty.

1441 - 1456

Prince of Transylvania, under Hungarian suzerainty.

1526

Hungary faces a devastating defeat by the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohács. Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia is killed alongside twenty-four thousand of his men, both Hungarian archbishops, and five bishops.

In September, Sultan Suleyman 'the Magnificent' advances cautiously into Buda but, unconvinced that he has faced the entire Hungarian army, withdraws quickly, bringing with him 105,000 captives and immense spoils.

Hungary subsequently loses the principality of Transylvania to the kingdom of John Zápolya. The Habsburgs inherit Hungary itself from the Lithuanian Jagiellos, but are opposed by the Zápolyas. It is unclear how much power the latter actually hold, especially as the Ottomans still hold the larger proportion of Hungary's territory until 1684-1687.

Transylvania itself largely ruled through appointed princes in the same style as is used for neighbouring Wallachia and Moldavia.

1526 - 1540

First prince of Transylvania under Ottoman suzerainty.

1540 - 1571

1564

Control of Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, and Croatia is taken fully by the Habsburgs as Holy Roman emperors. The principality of Transylvania retains nominal independence but only as an Ottoman vassal until 1644.

1571 - 1572

1572

The Polish occupy (or at least heavily influence) the principality of Transylvania. Poland's precise level of control or influence seems to be unclear, while Transylvania itself is emerging from its civil war to eject Habsburg influence. Stephen Báthory, leader in the civil war to eject the Habsburg Bekes faction, is the new voivode of Transylvania under the Polish aegis.

1572 - 1576

Voivode of Transylvania under Polish suzerainty.

1575 - 1576

In 1575 Stephen is elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania to replace the departed Henry of Valois, who has returned to France to claim its empty throne following the death of his brother. Stephen's new position includes marriage to Anna Jagiellon, the last of the dynasty, while his brother becomes voivode in Transylvania and he himself adopts the title of prince of Transylvania.

1576 - 1581

Brother. Voivode under Stephen as prince.

1581 - 1598

1599 - 1600

1600 - 1601

1600 - 1601

Michael the Brave briefly unites the three principalities that later form Rumania - Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia.

1602 - 1603

1602 - 1605

The Austrians occupy the region.

1605 - 1606

1607 - 1608

1608 - 1613

1613 - 1629

1630

1630 - 1648

1648 - 1660

1657

The Ottomans conquer the principality.

1658 - 1660

1661 - 1662

1661 - 1690

1682 - 1699

1690 - 1699

1699 - 1919

The Treaty of Karlowitz is signed on 26 January 1699 at Sremski Karlovci (now in Serbia). This brings to a conclusion the Austro-Ottoman War of 1683-1697 which had witnessed the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Zenta.

The Ottoman advance in Europe is stopped in its tracks, and is even partially reversed for the first time. This allows Austria to rise as a dominant player in European politics.

Khan Salim of the Tartars resigns his position following the treaty's signing while Austria takes permanent control of Transylvania. Transylvania is then ruled again from Hungary, this time without local princes.

1704 - 1711

1711

Transylvania is made a province of the kingdom of Hungary within the Austrian empire.

1881

The kingdom of Rumania is officially proclaimed, with Charles of of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as its first monarch. Romanians in the Hungarian province of Transylvania form a National Party to campaign for their rights, but meet with repression by the Hungarian authorities.

1919

The region passes to Rumania as part of the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian empire after the First World War. During the Second World War, Germany passes part of Transylvania back to Hungary.