European Kingdoms

Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire
Dynasty of the Comneni / Komneni (AD 1081-1185)

Rome Aquitani Tribes Canaanite States Celtic Tribes Classical Colonies Germanic Tribes Iberian Tribes Mesopotamian States Syrian States

From the start, the capital of the newly-created Eastern Roman empire was based at Constantinople, dedicated by Emperor Constantine 'the Great' in AD 330. In AD 395, the Roman empire finally suffered a permanent split, creating formal Eastern Roman and Western Roman empires within Europe and beyond, acknowledging what had existed in practise for many years.

The successful two hundred-year reign of the 'Macedonian Dynasty' by 1025 had restored Constantinople as the dominant power in the Balkans and Near East, with apparently secure frontiers along the Danube, in the Armenian highlands, and beyond the Euphrates. The Romans had also succeeded in exporting Christianity to the Rus.

These success were though a last 'hurrah' for the empire. It had managed to double its shrunken territory under the Macedonians, but the successor 'Non-Dynastic' ruler and then the brief 'Comnenian Prelude' and the 'Dynasty of the Ducas' entirely reversed that positive trend. Constantinople was struggling for its existence. All of its frontiers had been or were being breached, nomads were entering Anatolia and the Danube provinces, while the Normans had seized the empire's Italian territories in Apulia and elsewhere.

Romanus IV Diogenes of the Ducas had led the Eastern Romans to a shocking defeat to the Seljuqs at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071. With Alexius I (or Alexios) Comnenus of the 'Dynasty of the Comneni' (or Komneni) now leading the fight as part of the 'Komnenian Restoration', there were victories against the Normans in Dalmatia, refugee Pechenegs in Thrace, and the Seljuqs in Palestine and Syria (with the help of the Crusaders).

Even so, there seemed to be too many enemies in too many regions for the Romans to fully prosper. The sultanate of Rum took half of Anatolia during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Crusaders quickly and forcefully carved a large swathe of territory out of Seljuq holdings, and the rulers of Rum were forced into the interior around Konya, but there they were able to solidify their governance.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from the John De Cleene Archive, from the World Heritage Encyclopaedia, from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), from the BBC documentary series, The Crusades, first broadcast on 18 January 2012, from The Turks in World History, Carter Vaughn Findley (Oxford University Press 2005), from The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade, Susan Wise Bauer (2010), and from External Links: History of the Byzantine Empire (Live Science), and The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, Jonathan Shepard (Ed, Revised Edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008, and available via the Internet Archive), and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and Byzantine Empire, CWC Oman (Fisher Unwin, 1892, and available via Heritage History).)

1081 - 1118

Succeeded the Ducas dynasty. Nephew of Isaac I Comnenus.

1082 - 1085

A 'Golden Bull' is agreed with the Venetians which serves to establish new commercial privileges. Alexius in 1085 formally declares Venice to be independent of the Eastern Romans.

1085 - 1086

Antioch (now Antakya) is taken from the Eastern Romans and held for just thirteen years before it is lost to the Crusader principality of Antioch. Sulaymān of Rum is killed here in 1086 by his relative, Tutush of the Syrian branch of the Seljuqs in Damascus and Aleppo, who is loyal to Malik-Shāh.

The ancient city of Antioch was held by the sultanate of Rum for the thirteen years between 1085-1098 following its capture from the Eastern Roman empire, until the siege of Antioch as depicted here saw it captured by Crusader forces, following which a semi-independent Crusader principality was formed around it

1086

When the autonomous ruler of Melitene dies, one Philaretos Brachamios, Gabriel gains the support of the Danishmands to ensure full independence from the Eastern Roman empire.

1091

The conquest of Sicily is completed with the removal of local emir, Yusuf Ibn Abdallah. He is deposed peacefully, and with due deference for Arab custom, with the result that Butera and Noto, on the southern tip of Sicily, are firmly in Christian hands.

Much of Malta is captured in the same year, with the island's Christian population welcoming the Normans as liberators. The generally Eastern Roman Orthodox tradition on the island is gradually replaced by that of Latin Catholicism due to Lombard and Norman immigration.

Also in the same year, the Eastern Romans are saved from the Pecheneg threat by the unexpected arrival and support of the Cumans, which enables Emperor Alexius I Comnenus to rout the Pechenegs.

Occupation by Byzantine Greeks, Islamic Moors, and Christian Italians left Sicily with a rich cultural vein which is reflected in this tombstone of a Norman-Sicilian woman in 1148, inscribed in Latin (left), Greek (right), Hebrew (top), and Arabic (bottom)

1096

The First Crusade is called by Pope Urban II in 1095 during a momentous speech in Clermont-Ferrand in France. Having traversed Europe from west to east, the nobles, soldiers, and camp followers of the First Crusade assemble in Constantinople.

At last Emperor Alexius feels that his continued call for help has been answered by Europe in the fight against Islam. Nicaea in western Anatolia is the first Islamic-held town to fall to the Crusaders, who cross the Bosphorus alongside Eastern Roman forces.

The Christian soldiers briefly besiege the town before it falls. Islam is divided and in conflict with itself, and the ruling Seljuq Turks are in no position to offer immediate retaliation. The Crusaders move on into what becomes known to them as Outremer.

The coming of the Crusaders occurred at a time at which the Islamic world was deeply involved in factional in-fighting, and at first they were dismissed as being a mere Eastern Roman raid

1097

Between 1097-1099 the Crusaders recapture for the Eastern Romans much of Seljuq-held Anatolia, including Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Philadelphia, and Sardis. The Crusaders next routed the Seljuqs on 1 July 1097 at Dorylaeum in Anatolia.

1108 - 1112

Having travelled back to Europe, Bohemund of Antioch in September 1108 is forced to sign the Treaty of Devol. This authorises the Eastern Roman empire to annexe Antioch upon Bohemund's death.

Bohemund lasts until in 1111, following which Alexius I sends envoys to Antioch to demand control of the principality. Bohemund's successor, Tancred, refuses and continues to govern there until his own death in 1112. Antioch is then bequeathed to Roger de Principatu, son of Tancred's sister.

1116

Having only claimed his throne in 1110 after having been imprisoned in Esfahan by the 'Great Seljuq', Malik Shah of Rum now has to face an Eastern Roman empire which has been buoyed by Crusader successes in Anatolia.

The Seljuq ruler, Ahmad Sanjar, held territory in the wider region of Khorasan while his brother commanded as the 'Great Sultan' in Iran, but Ahmad's dominance of the east increased beyond that of a subsidiary ruler so that, in 1119, he was able to challenge for command of central Iran itself and control of the title of 'Great Sultan'

Emperor Alexius I Comnenus defeats him in a series of engagements over several days which forms the Battle of Philomelion. Shortly afterwards he is deposed and blinded - and soon to be murdered - by his brother, Mesut, who succeeds him.

1118 - 1143

Son. Continued imperial resurgence.

1124

Returning from the Holy Land, Domenico Michiel conquers Tyre, Spalato (Split), Sebenico (Šibenik), and other Eastern Roman cities for Venice.

1137 - 1138

An Eastern Roman army attacks Aleppo after forcing Raymond II, prince of Antioch, to pay homage and having allied both with Raymond and Count Joscelin II of Edessa. Raymond is to give up Antioch to Constantinople in exchange for assuming control over a different fief to be conquered from the territory of Imad ad Din of Mosul and Aleppo.

Under the Zangids the citadel in Aleppo rose to the height of its importance, becoming a prison to many titled Crusaders who were captured during the course of almost a century of warfare

A combined Roman and Crusader force (with John II leading the Romans) besieges Shaizar as part of the effort to carve out this new fief. After a month of effort they are driven off by Imad ad Din.

John demands the surrender of the citadel of Antioch, something which Raymond refuses to do. Meanwhile, Joscelin exploits local sentiment against the Romans to instigate riots which drive home Emperor John II.

1142

John again attacks Antioch and ravages the principality's territory due to the refusal by Raymond II to pay homage. John remains unable to bring Raymond to heal.

1143 - 1180

Younger son. Supported and protected Outremer.

1143

Raymond II of Antioch attempts to build on his steadfast refusal to come to heel by demanding that Emperor Manuel I cede some towns from Lesser Armenia to Antioch. Manuel instead forces Raymond to Constantinople to pay his long-delayed homage and requires Raymond to acknowledge a Greek Orthodox patriarch.

Emperor Manuel I Komnenos was influenced by his contact with western Crusaders, with him enjoying the reputation of 'the most blessed emperor of Constantinople' in parts of the Latin world, although his empire declined sharply following his death

1150

Baldwin III of Jerusalem in Palestine has been unable to defend Turbessel, the last remnant of the county of Edessa. He has to cede Turbessel to Emperor Manuel in August 1150. Baldwin evacuates Turbessel's Latin Christian residents despite an attack by Nureddin of Aleppo and Mosul at the battle of Aintab.

1161 - 1162

Stephen III of Hungary has been on the throne for six weeks when Emperor Manuel I Komnenos launches an expedition against his kingdom. The Hungarian lords are forced to accept Stephen's ambitious uncle, Ladislaus, as their ruler.

1163 - 1180

Stephen III of Hungary returns from refuge in Austria to seize Pressburg. His uncle, Stephen IV, is unpopular, and is defeated on 19 June 1163. Stephen III will go on to attempt a failed effort to reclaim territory from the Eastern Romans.

Serbs under strong tribal leaders in the twelfth century had taken advantage of the weakening of the empire to form two independent states, those of Raška and Zeta.

The Nemanja dynasty comes to power in Raška in 1169, independent but nominally under Eastern Roman overlordship and very quickly in command also in Zeta. By 1180 both are under firmer Eastern Roman dominion.

Baldwin III was one of the key Christian leaders to be involved in the Second Crusade, although one of its first acts was a failure in front of the walls of Damascus

1170 - 1171

The city of Zara rebels and switches allegiance to the Hungarians, but is re-conquered by Venice in the following year. The situation along the Dalmatian coast is somewhat unclear at this time, with Hungary continuing to vie with the Eastern Roman empire for supremacy. Manuel orders in 1171 the arrest of all Venetians who are living in Constantinople.

1176

The Eastern Romans are defeated by the Seljuqs of Rum at the Battle of Myriocephalon (generally held to be near to Çivril in Denizli province, western Anatolia). The empire enters a period of uncertainty and gradual decline which also affects its allies.

Kyiv is especially weakened by the continuing drop in trade goods from Constantinople, reducing its own wealth and importance even further than has already been the case.

Gleb of Vladimir, known sometimes as Gleb of Kyiv, was in fact Gleb Yurievich, a son of Yuri Dolgorukiy, shown here on the occasion of his marriage to Iziaslavna of Chernigov

1179 - 1180

Wife. Dau of Raymond of Antioch. Self-appointed regent.

1180 - 1183

Son. Organised resistance against Alexius. Murdered.

1180 - 1183

Manuel's nephew. Protosebastos, regent, Maria's lover.

1183 - 1185

Cousin. Co-emperor (1182). Sole emperor (1183). Deposed.

1185

The death of Emperor Manuel Comnenus in 1180 has been and will continue to be followed by a series of regencies, usurpations, and coups. Between 1180-1204 no fewer than fifty-eight rebellions or uprisings have taken place or will take place across the empire.

Now, while the Comneni soon continue in a Trebizond which is independent of the empire from 1204, the tyrannical Andronicus I is succeeded in Constantinople by Isaac II, founder of the Angeli dynasty.

A scyphate coin which was issued under Isaac II Angelus, a bowl-shaped coin with a concave face (the obverse) and a convex face (the reverse), and usually possessing a large diameter