Near East Kingdoms

Neo-Elamite Period (Elam) (Western Iran)

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The city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and up to a millennium before that of the Indus Valley culture.

Elam was one of the oldest named regions in history, being located in one of the oldest civilised areas in the world, now within Iran (see feature link). With a small but important selection of city states at its core it also provided history with one of its longest-surviving states, or at least a series of states which, for outsiders, can barely be distinguished apart from one another.

The preceding 'Middle Elamite Period' ended with the sacking of Elam and further occupation by Babylonia. Elam never quite recovered from this and the 'Neo-Elamite Period' was one of Indo-Iranian and Syrian influence, and especially Assyrian, and obscurity for the Elamites themselves.

An approximate date of 1100 BC serves as the end the 'Middle Elamite'. Little archaeological material has been recovered from the subsequent period, and a general lack of information is available from which can be described events in any real detail. This near-silence mirrors a general trend across the Near East following the Bronze Age collapse of about 1250-1150 BC which wiped out the Hittites and witnessed great change across Syria.

The 'Neo-Elamite' covers three phases, with 'Period I' lasting between about 1100-760 BC, and 'Period II' being assigned to the 760-644 BC years. 'Period III' starts at 644 BC following the Assyrian destruction of the thriving 'Period II' state and is essentially the swansong of an Elamite cultural identity.

Elam of the 'Neo-Elamite' was not the powerful state of old. Records covering Elamite rulers of this period are very poor, with only five kings recorded from native sources, while sources from Mesopotamia record fifteen.

However, although the land of Elam was politically unstable and was under constant threat of attack by Assyria, the Elamites still retained control of the Parsua in their south-eastern territories, whom they heavily influenced culturally. They also occasionally threatened Assyria, and managed to acquire wealth which made Elam the envy of its neighbours.

This Elam probably only really controlled the plain of Khuzestan on the western flank of the Zagros mountains. The highlands of Anshan were now home to the Parsua following several centuries of migration into that highlands region and settlement there. Other groups had only recently entered the Zagros mountains to the north, including the Medes and Mannaeans.

These groups formed various states which at first were very loose coalitions, with names which are known only from Assyrian sources. Initially these groups had large numbers of kings. thereby highlighting their fragmented, and probably tribal, status. Only later did they consolidate as larger states. All of them contributed towards a more uncertain political sphere to the east of Mesopotamia.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Mesopotamia, S Lloyd (Revised Ed, London, 1984), from Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, J N Postgate (Routledge, 1994), from History of the Ancient Near East c.3000-323 BC, Marc van der Mieroop (Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 2007), from The Archaeology of Elam, D T Potts (Cambridge University Press, 1999), from History & Philology, Walther Sallaberger & Ingo Schrakamp (Eds, Arcane III, Brepols, 2015), from The Elamite World, Javier Álvarez-Mon, Gian Pietro Basello, & Yasmina Wick (Eds, Routledge, 2018), from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), and from External Links: Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology, Jan Tavernier (PDF), and Ancient Worlds, and Ancient History, Anthony Michael Love (via Sarissa.org), and Images from History (University of Alabama), and the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, and Early Kings of Kish, Albrecht Goetze (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol 15, No 3, 1961, pp 105-111 and available to read via University of Chicago Press Journals), and Archaeology.org.)

c.1100 - 760 BC

'Neo-Elamite Period I' sees Elam's capital, Susa, sacked by the Babylonian king, Nebuchadrezzar. The kingdom is badly damaged, and is absorbed into Babylonia.

Babylon had mixed fortunes in its relations with Assyria, but in 823 BC it successfully supported Shamshi-Adad V's claim to the Assyrian throne

c.843 BC

The early Parsua receive their first mention in history. The Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III, records their existence on the Black Obelisk, which covers his campaign of about this year. Their position is not precisely fixed but 'Pasua' seems to lay in what is now Iranian Kurdistan (immediately east of Kurdistan in northern Iraq), far to the north of Persis and the heart of Persian settlement.

It may be the case that there are two (or perhaps even three) distinctive groups of 'Parsua' at this time, primarily in the Zagros mountains to the east and south-east of the Assyrians. This is apart from a larger body which is settling the land immediately to the east of Elam (and focussed around the city of Persis).

Those groups which are in the Zagros seem to drop out of the historical record, perhaps pushed south by the greater numbers of the Medes or perhaps absorbed by them.

Following the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC, Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions - Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering India (green) (click or tap on map to view full sized)

c.760 - 644 BC

'Neo-Elamite Period II' sees Elam, under its Babylonian masters, controlling the Parsua to the east of Elam itself. They have settled in increasing numbers to provide a sizable force which in part makes itself available to Elam. In this period Elam and Babylonia often fight side by side against external threats, especially that posed by the Assyrians.

c.760 - 742 BC

742 - 717 BC

720 BC

Assyrian king Sargon attempts to attack Elam but is defeated by the Elamites and Babylonians near Der. It seems likely that another attack is mounted in 713 BC, as Sargon is surprised by a rebellion in Tabal while his attention is focussed on Elamite lands.

Following the climate-change-induced collapse of indigenous civilisations and cultures in Iran and Central Asia between about 2200-1700 BC, Indo-Iranian groups gradually migrated southwards to form two regions - Tūr (yellow) and Ariana (white), with westward migrants forming the early Parsua kingdom (lime green), and Indo-Aryans entering India (green) (click or tap on map to view full sized)

717 - 699 BC

Murdered by his brother.

699 - 693 BC

Brother. Assassinated.

694 BC

An Elamite military raid takes Babylon, and the populace takes the opportunity to capture Ashur-nadin-shumi himself. They hand him over to Khallushu at his base in Sippar and he is taken off, never to be seen again.

A new native king takes the Babylonian throne in 694 BC, but he is quickly removed by Sennacherib. Then Mushezib-Marduk seizes the throne and organises a strong anti-Assyrian coalition made up of Chaldaeans, Babylonians, Aramaeans and Elamites, whom he pays from the temple treasury.

693 - 692 BC

Seized the throne. Abdicated in favour of his replacement.

692 - 689 BC

692/691 BC

Khumma-Menanu leads a coalition of states against Assyrian king Sennacherib at the Battle of Halule on the Tigris. With him is Babylon, the minor kingdom of Ellipi (roughly located in Luristan, to the immediate west of Elam), and the state of Anshan which seems able to be able to call on the Parsua.

Anshan has often - but not always - been part of Elam itself, but it may be ruled by a subsidiary line at this time. The location of the battle suggests a march by the allies towards the heart of Assyrian-dominated territory.

The outcome is not decisive, and does not prevent Sennacherib from devastating Babylon itself following a fifteen month-long siege, although it does protect Elam. Sippar also suffers Sennacherib's wrath for having provided a base for the Elamites. The temple of Annunitu is destroyed and the cult statue of Shamash is taken away along with other Babylonian deities.

Elam during the eighth century BC was either consistantly at war with Assyria and/or Babylonia, or with itself, with the throne changing hands several times through assassination or usurpation, while also creating high-quality tablets such as this, showing a woman spinning

689 - 681 BC

681 - 676 BC

680 - 653 BC

Joint ruler (680-676 BC).

675 BC

The Parsua on Elam's eastern border begin to unite under the (legendary) founder of their new dynasty. Many scholars of Persian history now believe that Achaemenes is a fictional common ancestor who is used to legitimise the rule of Darius I from 521 BC, but the Parsua do indeed unite and become increasingly dominant during the course of the next century.

676 - 664 BC

Joint ruler.

664 - 653 BC

Joint ruler. Killed in battle.

653 BC

Ashurbanipal of Assyria invades Elam and fights a battle at the River Ulai, which runs near Susa. During the battle the king, Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak, is killed and decapitated.

653 - 648 BC

653 - 651 BC

Joint ruler.

651 - 649 BC

Joint ruler.

649 - 647 BC

Joint ruler (649-648 BC).

647 - 644 BC

644 BC

'Neo-Elamite Period III' begins as Elam is devastated by Assyria, although not as badly as had previously been believed from inscriptions left by the Assyrians themselves. The populace suffers greatly, but they are not massacred.

Instead, the fragmented and weakened Elamites rule an increasingly shrinking domain. An example is probably the city of Untash-Napirisha which seems to be abandoned around this time and may even be a direct casualty of Assyria's attack. The land of Elam eventually passes into the hands of the Parsua.

They gain Anshan (Anzan) even while the last seventh century BC Elamite kings are still claiming it within their title, possibly as a result of the Assyrian attack on the Elamites in this year as it ties in with Achaemenes of the Persians being acclaimed as the king of Anshan.

644 - ? BC

Son. 'King of Anzan and of Susa'.

'King of Anzan and of Susa'.

c.620 BC

The Medians (possibly) take control of Persia from the weakening Assyrians who themselves had only recently taken control of the region from Elam. According to Herodotus, Media governs all of the tribes of the Iranian steppe. This sudden empire may well include territory to the east which covers Hyrcania, Parthia, Drangiana, and Carmania.

'King of Anzan and of Susa'.

c.580 BC

Son of Indada. Petty king.

'King'.

559 BC

Before this date, Cambyses of the Persians has married Mandane, (a) daughter of Astyages of Media. Their son is Cyrus, later known as 'the Great', while Mandane is also the niece of Amyhia, queen of Babylon. In this year Cyrus moves his capital to Susa, clearly taking control from the fading Elamite kings who now claim no title at all, and are probably pleased simply to be able to claim a kingship. Cyrus soon ends the vassalage of the Persians by defeating the Medes and then he swiftly creates an empire.

'King'. Lost Susa?

? - 539 BC

Had no title at all.

539 BC

The Persians assume full control of Elam as part of their increasing dominance of the region, leading to the Elamites fading from history as a recognisable people and culture - although they clearly do survive.

The Persians preserve Elamite culture for at least the period of their first dynasty, although what seems to be a semi-independent fragment of Elamite civilisation does seem to persist for several centuries in the form of Elymais, its people known as Elymaeans.

On the Behistun inscription of Darius 'the Great' in the later years of the sixth century BC the land of Elam is known as Uwja or Ūja. This is part of the satrapy of Persis, while Susa forms the capital of its own satrapy which is generally known as Susiana.