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Near East Kingdoms

Ancient Eastern Near East

 

Untash-Napirisha / Dur-Untash (City) (Western Iran)

FeatureThe city states of Sumer formed one of the first great civilisations in human history (see feature link). This Near Eastern civilisation emerged a little way ahead of that of Africa's ancient Egypt, and up to a millennium before that of the Indus Valley culture.

FeatureSouthern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and the western edge of Iran) was subjected to permanent settlement during the Pottery Neolithic and, by the late fourth millennium BC, Sumer was divided into approximately a dozen city states, by which time other regions were emerging as population centres in their own right. Elam was located to the east of Sumer, with its own selection of city states at its core (and see feature link).

This region was located on an alluvial plan below the Zagros mountains, and its remoteness meant that it took some time for it to assimilate Sumer's groundbreaking social, agricultural, and administrative inventions. Access to Sumer was in the Zagros foothills, circling the marshes, but this meant difficulties in communication, and a feeling in Sumer of there being comparative barbarians on their eastern flank.

Culturally, Elamite kingdoms achieved less than their more advanced neighbours, and imported much of what they needed, including writing from Sumer and architecture from the later city and empire of Babylon. Elamite records are also extremely sparse in recording local events, and large areas of its history are almost totally unknown except through Sumerian records.

The city of Untash-Napirisha (or Untash-Naprisha, without the extra 'i', and sometimes shown as al-Untash-Napirisha, literally 'the city of Untash-Napirisha') was located at the modern archaeological site of Chogha Zanbil near the River Dez. This site sits about forty kilometres to the south-east of Susa, and a similar way due south of what by its time was the largely-abandoned city of Chogha Mish. It was established around 1250 BC, during the Middle Elamite period (generally agreed at 1500-1100 BC).

This important site lay on a plateau, about thirty or forty metres above the river plain. It was first excavated by Roland de Mecquenem in 1935-1939, and later by Roman Ghirshman between 1951-1962. Behzad Mofidi-Nasrabadi (author of a chapter of The Elamite World - see sources) carried out geophysical prospecting, surveys, and excavations between 1999-2005.

The city was conceived as a sacred centre for which was planned various temples for various Elamite deities. However, socio-economic aspects which played an important role in the development of urban life were not fully taken into consideration during its building. Although the city was founded above the Dez, making use of the river water was difficult due to the city's elevated location. It has been surmised that a canal was built to the River Karkeh, over a rather staggering distance of forty-five kilometres. As may be expected, the suggestion has been treated as being speculative.

Since the sacred aspects of this new foundation played a fundamental role in its implementation, its ziggurat took up a central position. Inscriptions on the bricks highlight this importance. It was dedicated to the deities Inshushinak and Napirisha, and was enclosed by a wall. On the north-western side of this wall were situated temples for Ishmeqarab, Kiririsha, and Napirisha. Other temples were built at some distance from the ziggurat, surrounded by a second thick wall which formed a holy district of its own, while the city as a whole was delimited by a four kilometre-long outer wall.

Two palaces were located about five hundred metres to the east of the ziggurrat, along with a funerary building with five subterranean tombs. The tombs were most likely planned for the members of the royal family, but they must have been used on a secondary basis by other individuals since the sparse skeletal remains and grave goods do not make it possible to identify them as royal burials.

The city was renamed Dur-Untash (the 'fort of Untash') at some point in its rather short history. Precisely when seems to be unknown but, given the city's demotion in terms of status, it probably happened in the 1100s or 1000s BC. Many houses were located within the holy district, inside the middle wall, constructed after the city had been demoted. Archaeologically these buildings are divided into three phases: 'Building Level 3' (1200-1000 BC), 'Building Level 2' (1000-800 BC), and 'Building Level 1' (800-600 BC). The city remained in use at least until the seventh century BC.

Sometimes Elamite cities had rival kingships, mostly poorly-recorded, and sometimes they seemed to combine into one kingdom or perhaps acted as a loosely-joined coalition. Sometimes they even attacked and/or invaded one another's territories, and sometimes the lands of Elam were united under the control of a single king. Potentially also included at various times in various events were smaller cities or groups which included Aratta, Harshi, Itnigi, Sapum, Shig(i)rish, Zabshali, and Zitanu.

Following Elam's eventual unification as a single state, the city of Susa also largely served as the capital prior to conquest by the Persians. By the time Alexander the Great was established there, in the late fourth century BC, it was better known as Susiana.

Elamites of Din Sharri being deported by Ashurbanipal

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Samuel Noah Kramer ('List 1' of Sumerian rulers, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1963), from Historical Atlas of the Ancient World, 4,000,000 to 500 BC, John Heywood (Barnes & Noble, 2000), from The Ancient Near East, c.3000-330 BC, Amélie Kuhrt (Routledge, 2000, Vol I & II), from Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, Michael Road (Facts on File, 2000), from Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Enrico Ascalone (Dictionaries of Civilizations 1, University of California Press, 2007), from The Archaeology of Elam, D T Potts (Cambridge University Press, 1999), from The Elamite World, Javier Álvarez-Mon, Gian Pietro Basello, & Yasmina Wick (Eds, Routledge, 2018), and from External Links: Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology, Jan Tavernier (PDF), and the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, and Early Kings of Kish, Albrecht Goetze (Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol 15, No 3, 1961, pp 105-111 and available to read via University of Chicago Press Journals), and Archaeology.org.)

c.1250 BC

The largest project to be undertaken by the Igehalkid dynasty of Elamite kings is the construction of a new city which is located forty kilometres from Susa. The city of Untash-Napirisha is named after its founder, Untash-Naprisha (using a variation of the spelling for Naprisha).

It is devoted to Napirisha, the great god of Elam, and Inshushinak, the patron deity of Susa. The temples are provided with statues and stelae and are regarded as important holy sites, although temple construction remains unfinished. The city is used as the king's primary centre but, following his death, it assumes secondary status to Susa.

c.1190 -1160 BC

Shutruk-Nahhunte I of Elam's Shutrukid dynasty of kings states in one of his inscriptions that he brings to Susa several stelae which King Untash-Naprisha had previously placed in the city of Untash-Napirisha. It is probably at or after this time at which the city becomes known as Dur-Untash - more of a defensive structure than a thriving city.

Several such items have been discovered through archaeology and are presumed to be those which originally stood in Untash-Napirisha. Other inscriptions mention further objects which have come to Susa from Anshan, and Tikni. Shutruk-Nahhunte's passion for collecting monuments in his capital city results in the gathering of a vast number of them there, including many which have come from Mesopotamia.

c.1155 - 1125 BC

The next king-but-one after Shutruk-Nahhunte is Shilkhak-In-Shushinak. Most of the period's indigenous Elamite art in Untash-Napirisha is attested from his reign. One of the most remarkable such art pieces is a cast bronze model which apparently depicts the sit shamshi ritual ('sunrise' in Akkadian) in which two naked male figures, probably priests, carry out a purification or a libation ritual.

The presence of some inscribed bricks and glazed wall knobs from the reign of his own successor, Khutelutush-In-Shushinak (otherwise shown as Khutelutush-Inshushinak or Hutelutush-Inshushinak), at Susa and Anshan give evidence for this king’s building activities in both major Elamite centres, but not in Untash-Napirisha.

1100s BC

With the city having been demoted in status following the death of Untash-Naprisha, its uncompleted holy areas have also lost their importance. Many houses are built within the holy district, inside the middle wall. Archaeologically these buildings are divided into three phases: 'Building Level 3' (1200-1000 BC), 'Building Level 2' (1000-800 BC), and 'Building Level 1' (800-600 BC).

This approximate date ends the 'Middle Elamite Period'. Little archaeological material is recovered from the subsequent period, and a general lack of detail is known to describe events in any real detail. This near-silence mirrors a general trend across the Near East following the Bronze Age collapse of about 1250-1150 BC which has wiped out the Hittites and seen great change across Syria.

600s BC

The city's most recent building phase is dated to 'Building Level 1' (800-600 BC). Fragments of two glazed bull knobs are unearthed which bear similarities with those from Susa of the eighth or seventh centuries BC. They are located near the tomb building to indicate the continued use of luxury goods into this period.

'Neo-Elamite Period III' begins around 644 BC as Elam is devastated by Assyria, although not as badly as had previously been believed from inscriptions left by the Assyrians themselves. The populace suffers greatly, but it is not massacred.

Instead, the fragmented and weakened Elamites rule an increasingly shrinking domain. An example is probably the city of Untash-Napirisha which seems to be abandoned around this time and may even be a direct casualty of Assyria's attack. The land of Elam eventually passes into the hands of the Parsua.

 
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