Near East Kingdoms

Argead Dynasty in Mesopotamia (Hellenic Empire) (Near East)

Persian & Greek Empires (Indices) Persian & Greek Satrapies Persian Satraps Greek Satraps

The Argead were the ruling family and founders of Macedonia who reached their greatest extent under Alexander the Great and his two successors before the kingdom broke up into several Hellenic sections. Following Alexander's conquest of central and eastern Persia in 331-328 BC, the Greek empire ruled the region until Alexander's death in 323 BC and the subsequent regency period which ended in 310 BC. Alexander's successors held no real power, being mere figureheads for the generals who really held control of Alexander's empire. Following that latter period and during the course of several wars, Mesopotamia was largely left in the hands of the Seleucid empire from 305 BC.

At the heart of southern Mesopotamia, Babylonia was not unknown to the Greeks. Even under Persian Mesopotamia many Greeks travelled here, some as traders, some as Persian military allies and some, like Herodotus, on journeys of exploration. Nomenclature bears out the lack of any permanent Greek presence here though, as the Greeks do not know the two great rivers of Mesopotamia by their universal regional names, Purat and Deklath, but from the Medo-Persian corruptions of them - Ufratush and Tigra (the modern Euphrates and Tigris).

After 305 BC, Seleucid rule brought changes to Mesopotamia, especially in cities in which Greeks and Macedonians were settled. In these cities separate agreements were usually made with the Greek officials regarding civil and military authority, and immunity from taxes or levees and the like. Native cities continued to employ their old systems of local government, much as they had under the Achaemenids. Greek gods were worshiped in temples that were dedicated to them in the Greek cities, and native Mesopotamian gods had temples dedicated to them in the native cities. However, although an enforced policy of Hellenisation was not followed, Greek ideas and practices did filter down and were gradually adopted. There is no evidence from the east to show that Greek religious beliefs were especially prevalent amongst the local population to the detriment of local forms of worship, but there is no record of persecution. On the contrary, the rulers seem to have favoured local religious practices, and ancient forms of worship continued. Cuneiform writing by priests, who copied incantations and old religious texts, continued into the Parthian period.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Jewish War & Jewish Antiquities, Flavius Josephus, from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from the Cyropaedia & Anabasis, Xenophon of Athens, from The Cambridge Ancient History, John Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from Ancient and Modern Assyrians: A Scientific Analysis, George V Yana (Xlibris Corporation, 2008), from Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great, Joseph Roisman (BRILL, 2002), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Appian's History of Rome: The Syrian Wars at Livius.org, and Diodorus of Sicily at the Library of World History (dead link), and Encyclopaedia Iranica, and the Nabonidus Chronicle, contained within Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, A K Grayson (Translation, 1975 & 2000, and now available via Livius in an improved version).)

331 - 323 BC

King of Macedonia. Conquered Persia.

323 - 317 BC

Feeble-minded half-brother of Alexander the Great.

317 - 310 BC

Infant son of Alexander the Great and Roxana.

331 - 328 BC

Persian satrap of Babylonia. Died 328 BC.

328 - 323 BC

Greek satrap of Babylonia (and Mesopotamia?). Died?

323 - 320 BC

Greek satrap of northern Mesopotamia. Removed or fled?

322 - 320 BC

Immediately following Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC, Susiana is presumably governed by Archon of Pella, who holds Babylonia in the name of the titular successors to the empire. Arcesilas is confirmed in northern Mesopotamia (but not Babylonia as is sometimes claimed, thanks to the presence of Archon of Pella).

The First War of the Diadochi (the successors - the generals of Alexander's army) between 322-320 BC sees civil war break out between the generals, and Perdiccas, regent of Macedonia, is murdered by his own generals during an invasion of Egypt. Alexander's successor, Philip III, agrees terms with the murdering generals and appoints them as regents.

Despite its gradual relegation as a place of importance in the face of the Greek preference for Seleucia, Babylon was still of huge importance in Mesopotamia, as can be seen in this unknown artist's impression of the city (click or tap on image to view full sized), while above is the route of Alexander's ongoing campaigns across the ancient world (click or tap on map to view full sized)

320 BC

A new agreement with Antipater makes him regent of the Macedonian empire and commander of the European section. The Antigonids remain in charge of Lycia and Pamphylia, to which is added Lycaonia, Syria and Phoenicia, making Antigonus commander of the Asian section. Ptolemy retains Egypt, Lysimachus retains Phrygia and Thrace, while the three murderers of Perdiccas - Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes - are given the former Persian provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively.

Arrhidaeus, the former regent, receives Hellespontine Phrygia, while in northern Mesopotamia, Arcesilas seems to have fallen from grace. It is assumed that, as a one-time supporter of Perdiccas, he has opposed Seleucus Nicator who soon decides that he wants the entire region in his soon-to-be-created Seleucid empire. Amphimachus becomes his replacement.

320 - ? BC

Greek satrap of northern Mesopotamia.

319 - 315 BC

The death of Antipater leads to the Second War of the Diadochi. Philip III is killed by his stepmother, Olympias, in 317 BC with her being killed by Cassander the following year. Cassander also captures Alexander IV and Roxana and installs a governor in Athens, subsuming its democratic system. Eumenes is defeated in Asia and murdered by his own troops, and Seleucus is forced to flee Babylon by Antigonus in 315 BC. By this point Amphimachus already seems to be satrap no more, although his fate is not known.

Even in the early days of the Assyrian rise to power, in the second millennium BC, northern Mesopotamia had largely been dominated by Babylonia, and the Argead period saw that situation being reinforced

? - 315 BC

Greek satrap of northern Mesopotamia. Removed.

315 BC

In anger at the escape of Seleucus from Babylon, Antigonus deposes Blitor, satrap of Mesopotamia (showing that the offices of Babylon and Mesopotamia have been detached from one another). The result is that Cassander controls the European territories (including Macedonia), while the Antigonids control those in Asia (Asia Minor, centred on Lycia and extending as far as Susiana). Polyperchon remains in control of part of the Peloponnese.

315 - 312? BC

Greek satrap of northern Mesopotamia for Antigonus.

314 - 311 BC

The Third War of the Diadochi results because the Antigonids have grown too powerful in the eyes of the other generals, so Antigonus is attacked by Ptolemy (of Egypt), Lysimachus (of Phrygia and Thrace), Cassander (of Macedonia), and Seleucus (who is hoping to regain Babylonia). The latter indeed does secure Babylon and the others conclude peace terms with Antigonus in 311 BC. Antigonus' appointment as satrap of Media, Nicanor, is removed from his post by Seleucus, and it seems likely that the same happens to the unnamed satrap of northern Mesopotamia.

312? - ? BC

Greek satrap of northern Mesopotamia for Seleucus.

308 - 301 BC

The Fourth War of the Diadochi soon breaks out. In 306 BC Antigonus proclaims himself king, so the following year the other generals do the same in their domains. Polyperchon, otherwise quiet in his stronghold in the Peloponnese, dies in 303 BC and Cassander claims his territory. The war ends in the death of Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Seleucus is now king of all Hellenic territory from Syria and Babylonia eastwards, and the Seleucid empire is created.

The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided

301 - 129 BC

Seleucus founds the city of Seleucia in Mesopotamia by massively rebuilding and expanding an existing settlement. Alternatively known as Seleucia-on-Tigris, the city soon provides nearby Babylon with a major competitor and the latter begins to decline and empty, leading to its eventual abandonment. Seleucid control of the region, first from Babylonia, then from Seleucia, and finally from Antioch in Syria, lasts until 126 BC.

129 - 126 BC

Although the Parthians have already conquered Seleucia and then Uruk in Mesopotamia, it takes them until now to conquer Babylonia from the weakening Seleucids. The Parthian empire retains its holdings in Mesopotamia until it eventually breaks up, leaving behind it a patchwork of kingdoms which remain in a loose alliance with one another for a further two hundred years.

c.124 - 113 BC

The Parthian empire is looking somewhat shaky following the deaths of two kings in battles and the loss of large areas of Mesopotamia to the kingdom of Characene. The first notable act by the new king is to put Hyspaosines of Characene in his place. Then he forces the northern Mesopotamian states of Adiabene, Gordyene, and Osrhoene to accept vassal status. The Seleucid city of Dura-Europas is conquered in 113 BC.

The city of Dura-Europos was founded around 300 BC by the Seleucid Greeks, seized by the Arsacid Parthians and then by the Romans, and was then destroyed almost six hundred years after its creation by a drawn-out border conflict between Rome and the Sassanids

Mesopotamia's subsequent history is as a battleground between competing Parthian and Roman forces, and then as a frontier region of the successor to the Parthian empire, in the form of the Sassanids. In AD 637 Mesopotamia is lost to the Islamic empire as it surges out of the desert to create a caliphate which will govern the region for several hundred years.