European Kingdoms

Hirpini (Samnites) (Italics)

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What are generally known as West Indo-European tribes arrived at the eastern edge of Central Europe around 2500 BC. Their northern group later became the proto-Celts of the Urnfield culture while the southern group seemingly migrated westwards and southwards, reaching Iberia, Illyria, and northern Italy.

Already further divided into semi-isolated tribes, they became more civilised in their habits and available forms of technology due to contact with southern Greeks and Etruscans. In the period between the eleventh to eighth centuries BC some of those groups in Illyria crossed by sea into the Italian peninsula and settled along the south-eastern coast.

Those who had entered peninsular Italy via the north Italian piedmont gradually migrated southwards to occupy much of the rest of eastern and central Italy. These tribes all formed part of a general group which are known as Italics, seemingly part of the main population of West Indo-Europeans prior to the emergence of Celtic culture.

The Hirpini were Italics who, during the Italian Iron Age, were located on the eastern edges of the modern region of Campania. They were neighboured to the north by the Caudini clan of the Samnite confederation, to the east by the Iapyges, to the south by the Lucani and Oenotri, and to the west by the Etruscans who dominated the land around Capua.

The Oscan-Umbrian group of which the Hirpini were part are largely accepted as being Indo-European (perhaps even proto-Celtic) who migrated into the peninsula from the north. For a sizable part of their existence as an identifiable unit, they formed part of the Samnite confederation. This was a loosely-knit grouping of four clans: the Carracini, Caudini, Hirpini, and Pentri (the most important of the clans). The Frentani may also have joined them as they expanded their territory.

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(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson, from Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, Vol 3, Issue 1, James Cowles Prichard, from An Historical Geography of Europe, Norman J G Pounds (Abridged Version), from The Roman History: From Romulus and the Foundation of Rome to the Reign of the Emperor Tiberius, Velleius Paterculus, J C Yardley, & Anthony A Barrett, from A Genetic Signal of Central European Celtic Ancestry, David K Faux, from The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, David W Anthony, from The History of Rome, Volume 1, Titus Livius (translated by Rev Canon Roberts), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Cambridge (England), 1910), from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), and from External Links: The Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe (Nature), and Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe (Nature.com), and Indo-European Chronology - Countries and Peoples, and Indo-European Etymological Dictionary, J Pokorny, and Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, William Smith (1854, Perseus Digital Library), and The Natural History, Pliny the Elder (John Bostock, Ed), and Geography, Strabo (H C Hamilton & W Falconer, London, 1903, Perseus Online Edition), and L'Arbre Celtique (The Celtic Tree, in French), and Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz or Dictionnaire Historique de la Suisse or Dizionario Storico dell Svizzera (in German, French, and Italian respectively), and Le Alpi (Università di Trento), and Pleiades (Ancient World Mapping Center and Institute for the Study of the Ancient World).)

10th century BC

The Samnite confederation of clans would already appear to exist and has settled along the Apennine range. According to Thucydides, the arrival of the more warlike Oenotri and Opici in northern Calabria triggers the migration of the Elymi, Itali, and Siculi into the 'toe' of Italy and onto Sicily.

The orange area shows the general territory under the control of the Samnites, while the location of each of their divisions, along with the Frentani, is shown within that territory (click or tap on map to view full sized)

Antiochus of Syracuse, writing around 420 BC, confirms this. The migration would seem to be the trigger for the Lucani to enter the modern regions of southern Campania and Basilicata, thereby separating themselves from the main Samnite body.

9th - 7th century BC

With the beginning of the Italian Iron Age signs of territorial variation begin to emerge, although the gradual differentiation between a western area, an eastern area, and an Alpine area will only acquire more consistency in the seventh century BC. This is the Golasecca I A period.

The tough Pentri tribe occupies the central Samnite region, with the Carricini in the northern region, and the Caudini to the south of the Pentri. The Hirpini occupy the far south of 'Samnium', between the valleys of the Ofanto, Calore and Sabbato rivers.

Their main cities are Abellinum, Aeclanum, Compsa, Maleventum (later called Beneventum by the Romans, and Benevento by the Lombards), and Trevicum.

Objects which have been found in tombs in the Como region of Italy testify to the progressive opening up by the Golasecca people to exchanges with the transalpine world to the north and the central-Italic Etruscan area to the south

480 BC

Hamilcar of Carthage lands a huge army in Sicily in order to confront Syracuse on the island's eastern coast. The Carthaginians are defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Himera, and a long struggle ensues with intermittent warfare between Carthage and Syracuse.

The defeat results in substantial political changes in Carthage, and it also results in the loss of the Etruscan cities of Campania in the south during the course of this century, with Rome and the Samnites being the beneficiaries.

438 - 421 BC

The Samnites expand south-westwards into the rich plains of Etruscan Campania, capturing the towns of Capua in 438 BC and Cumae (modern Cuma) in 421 BC. Given the location of the Caudini and Hirpini in Samnite territory, they are probably at the forefront of this push towards the Tyrrhenian coast.

Roman military tactics may have owed something to the Samnites, with this efficient and seasoned warrior force matching the Romans and bettering them in the fourth century BC

343 - 341 BC

Rome triggers the First Samnite War after the Samnites refuse to stop threatening Greek coastal colonies. Roman Consul Cornelius attacks the Samnite town of Saticula (on the border of the modern region of Campania), but the war ends with Rome distracted by the Latin Wars against its other Italic allies.

325 - 304 BC

With the Samnites continuing to pressure the Greek colonies, the Second Samnite War is triggered against Rome. The Samnite commander, Gaius Pontius, leads a force of around nine thousand, including a thousand cavalry, with which he wins several early victories.

He defeats the army of Roman Dictator Lucius Cornelius Lentulus, and captures the towns of Canusium and Gnaitha, but the Samnites suffer defeat at the hands of Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus at Imbrinium. This period proves to be the end for the Golasecca culture within the Italian Iron Age.

298 - 290 BC

The Samnites are seeking allies in advance of a renewal of hostilities against Rome. The Third Samnite War begins with Consul Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus immediately defeating the Samnites at Tifernum after managing to encircle their forces.

In general terms, these Samnite soldiers bore a very similar appearance to republican Romans, as both sides were using very similar forms of warfare

268 BC

Rome establishes a colony at Maleventum (or Beneventum as the colonists call it, the later Benevento). This act robs the Hirpini of one of their main cities and points to their subjugation by the Romans. The colony itself is probably the key to holding down the Hirpini.

218 - 202 BC

The Second Punic War is fought by Rome against Carthage. Rome is aided by its Etruscan, Frentani, Picene, and Umbrian forces, but Italy is invaded by Hannibal Barca and a Roman army is massacred at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, killing sixty thousand.

It is at this stage that the Hirpini (now acting independently from the Samnite collective) declare for the Carthaginians. Beneventum remains in Roman hands, and in the following year Rome also recaptures three smaller Hirpini towns thanks to the efforts of Praetor M Valerius.

The city of Carthage existed in its original glory for at least four hundred and twenty-eight years before it was destroyed by the Romans - and possibly another two centuries before that as a developing colony which was founded by Phoenicians

Hirpini territory in 214 BC is used by Carthaginian General Hanno against Tiberius Gracchus, and in 212 BC Hanno attempts to recapture former Samnite town of Capua. When the Carthaginians finally withdraw in 209 BC, the Hirpini submit and gain beneficial terms by betraying the Carthaginian garrisons which still occupy their towns.

Rome establishes full dominion over the south-east of Italy and the tribes of the Dauni, Hirpini, Iapyges, Lucani, Messapii, and Peucetii.

180 BC

A colony of Ligurians is transplanted from the north by Rome and resettled in the Tamarus valley, to the north of Beneventum. Known as the Ligures Barniani et Corneliani, their colony is still recognisably distinct during the lifetime of Pliny in the first century AD.

The origins of the Euganei, Ligurians, Raeti, Veneti, and Vindelici are confused and unclear, but in the last half of the first millennium BC they were gradually being Celticised or were combining multiple influences to create hybrid tribes (click or tap on map to view full sized)

91 - 89 BC

Along with the Etruscans, Lucani, Marrucini, Marsi, Paeligni, Picentes, and Vestini, the Samnites fight the Social War (Italian War, or Marsic War) against Rome. The war is the result of increasing inequality in Roman land ownership, and the spark for conflict is delivered by the assassination of the reforming Marcus Livius Drusus, whose efforts would have led to citizenship for all of Rome's allies.

Along with the Samnites in general, the Hirpini are amongst the first to take up arms, but in 89 BC Sulla takes Aeclanum, one of their strongest cities. The Hirpini are greatly shaken by this, and they and their allies submit to Rome. Although defeated, the Italic tribes are granted the Roman citizenship which had previously been withheld from them.

The Etruscan Novilara Stele, the only one of four which can be attested fully by modern archaeology, remains a mystery, its language still undeciphered

91 - 89 BC

Samnite leader during the Social War.

91 - 89 BC

Probable first commander of the Hirpini.

89 BC

Probable second commander of the Hirpini.

82 - 79 BC

Roman Dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla conducts an ethnic cleansing campaign against the general population of Samnites, but this appears not to include the Hirpini, some of whom had clearly been favourable towards Rome even during the Social War.

However, they do lose sizable portions of their better territory, possibly to wealthy Romans. They, and their Samnite cousins, are quickly absorbed into Roman Italy and disappear as a recognisably distinct people.