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Far East Kingdoms

China

 

 

 

Feature China

Ancient Chinese chronicles recount the lives and exploits of a succession of dynastic rulers that extends back to the twenty-fourth century BC. However, the only surviving scrolls date from more than 2,000 years later, so how much is fact and how much is reverent fiction may never be known. These early dynasties were drawn from a blending of small native tribes that developed and expanded until something approaching modern China had been created.

Yangshao & Longshan Cultures
fl c. 3000 BC

Relics from these early Chinese cultures have been found at the Erlitou Bronze Age site in Henan Province.

The Legendary Period

The Age of the Five Rulers, lasting for 647 years.

Hsia / Xia Dynasty / Erlitou Culture
2205 - 1766 BC (1962 - 1523 BC)

Upper China; Longhan Period. Yu the Great was the founder of the Xia Dynasty, the first historical dynasty of China. His capital was probably at Erlitou. There were sixteen succeeding emperors in this line. The Erlitou Bronze Age site in Henan Province has its heyday during this period, which is known as the Erlitou culture.

2205 BC

Yu the Great

? - 1766 BC

Jie

A tyrant. Overthrown by the Shang.

c.1766 BC

Jie is a tyrant. He is overthrown at the Battle of Mingtiao by the Shang tribe which lives in the lower regions of the Yellow River.

FeatureShang Dynasty (Yin Shang) / Bronze Age
1766 - 1122 BC (1523 - 1028 BC)

The Shang were originally a tribe that occupied the lower regions of the Yellow River during the period of dominance of the Xia dynasty. During the tyrannical rule of Jie, the last of the Xia, the Shang established their own dynasty under 'King Tang'. The dates given for this are varied, as several alternate chronologies have been put forward. Apart from 1766 BC, two further dates, 1675 BC or 1523 BC, have been proposed. The Shang dynasty lasted for at least five hundred years and was witness to thirty different emperors. As the capital of the Shang was later based in Yin (modern Xiaotun Village, in Anyang City, Henan Province), the dynasty is also known as the 'Yin Shang'.

Chinese names are often subject to some revision over time (perhaps most famously with the Peking of the 1950s becoming the Beijing of the 2000s). The names of this dynasty's rulers is no different, so two versions are offered here. The dynasty's start and end dates cover a span of 644 years. However, the number of years that each ruler was on the throne amounts to 663, providing a discrepancy of nineteen years that cannot otherwise be accounted for.

1766 BC - ?

Ch'eng-tang / Shang Tang

Founded the dynasty (or in 1675 BC). Reigned 30 years.

c.1700 BC

Dated to approximately 1700 BC, the palace discovered by archaeologists at the Erlitou Bronze Age site in Henan province may be a prototype for later Shang places of worship. It is the best-preserved palace ever found at the site, with rammed-earth foundations and at least three courtyards, and covers a total area of more than 2,100 square metres (yards). The Erlitou site also contains cultural relics ranging from the Yangshao and Longshan cultures and the Xia dynasty.

Erlitou palace
The Erlitou palace was at its height during the Xia dynasty, but was inherited by the Shang

? / Wai Bing

Son. Reigned 3 years.

? / Zong Ren

Brother. Reigned 4 years.

T'ai-chia / Tai Jia

Grandson of Tang. Reigned 33 years.

Wu-ling / Wo Ding

Son. Reigned 29 years.

T'ai-keng / Tai Geng

Brother. Reigned 25 years.

Hsiao-chia / Xiao Jia

Son. Reigned 36 years.

Yung-chi / Yong Ji

Brother. Reigned 12 years.

The age of harmony and peace that had been ushered in and maintained by the first few Shang rulers suddenly wanes under the latest. Conditions begin to deteriorate and there are multiple attempts by the emperor's own family to overthrow him and take command of the kingdom. Social problems begin to emerge and the emperor's power gradually declines.

T'ai-wu / Tai Wu

Brother. Reigned 75 years.

Chung-ting / Zhong Ding

Son. Reigned 11 years.

Wai-jen / Wai Ren

Brother. Reigned 15 years.

Tsien-chia / He Dan Jia

Brother. Reigned 9 years.

Tsu-yi / Zu Yi

Son. Reigned 19 years.

Tsu-yi's reign of almost two decades witnesses the restoration of the dynasty's prosperity.

Tsu-hsin / Zu Xin

Son. Reigned 16 years.

Ch'iang-chia / Wo Jia

Brother. Reigned 20 years.

Tsu-ting / Zu Ding

Son of Tsu-hsin. Reigned 32 years.

Nan-keng / Nang Geng

Son of Ch'iang-chia. Reigned 29 years.

Hu-chia / Yang Jia

Son of Tsu-ting. Reigned 7 years.

The country declines once more during the reign of Hu-chia.

P'an-keng / Pan Geng

Brother. Reigned 28 years.

c.1380 BC

P'an-keng moves the capital to Yin, thereby creating the amended form of the dynasty's name, Yin Shang. The country remains prosperous during his reign, experiencing a golden age. Unfortunately, that prosperity is short-lived, and soon fails under the next ruler.

Hsiao-hsin / Xiao Xin

Brother. Reigned 21 years.

Hsiao-yi / Xiao Yi

Brother. Reigned 21 years.

Wu-ting / Wu Ding

Reigned 59 years. First historically verifiable king.

Wu-ting is the greatest of the Shang after P'an-keng. He enlarges the territory under his control by conducting a war in Guifang that lasts for three years. He subsequently takes Dapeng and Tunwei. Social productivity is developed to a high level, including aspects of textile manufacturing, medicine, and astronomy. His reign is one of great achievements.

Tsu-kêng / Zu Geng

Son. Reigned 7 years.

Tsu-chia / Zu Jia

Brother. Reigned 33 years.

Lin-hsin / Lin Xin

Son. Reigned 6 years.

K'ang-tin / Geng Din

Brother. Reigned 6 years.

Wu-yi / Wu Yi

Son. Reigned 4 years.

Wên-wu-ting

Uncertain. Not included in all lists. May be the same as Tai Ding.

Ti-hsin / Tai Ding

Son of Wu-yi. Reigned 3 years.

Ti-yi / Di Yi

Son. Reigned 37 years.

? - 1122 BC

? / Zhou

Reigned 33 years. The last Shang emperor.

The country is in turmoil and vassals from other countries begin to rebel. Despite the turmoil and the impending uprising, Zhou leads a luxurious life and tortures both his ministers and his people. This intensifies conflicts across the kingdom and the dynasty is finally overthrown by Wu (chief of the Zhou tribe) at the Battle of Muye, ending the long reign of the Shang. Zhou commits suicide, but the victorious Wu allows Zhou's son to govern the Shang tribe as a vassal.

FeatureChou / Zhou / Shu Dynasty / Bronze Age
1122 - 255 BC (1027 - 256 BC)

Under the Zhou, people began to use the twelve branches system to record time and set solar terms to guide agriculture. An accurate eclipse is record in this period, and branches of medicine appear.

Early Zhou Period
1122 - 771 BC

Western Zhou
1122 - 722 BC

Capital: Hao.

Eastern Zhou
1122 - 722 BC

Capital: Chengzhou originally, then Luoyang.

1122 - 1119 BC

Wu Wang

Western Zhou.

1122 - ? BC

Wugeng Lufu

Son of Zhou Shang Vassal ruler of the Shang.

1119 BC

Following the death of Wu Wang, the Shang, probably still under Wugeng Lufu, join the Three Governors' Rebellion. Wu's brother, Zhou Gongdan, acts as regent for the king's young son and plays a major role in defeating the rebellion and consolidating the rule of the Zhou. Thanks to his fiefdom being based around the Zhou capital of Chengzhou, Gongdan is also known as Zhou Gong, Zhou Gong Dan, Shu Dan, and Zhou Dan.

1119 - ? BC

Chêng Wang

Son.

1119 - 1112 BC

Zhou Gongdan / Chou Kung-tan

Uncle and regent. Known colloquially as 'The Duke of Zhou'.

K'ang Wang

c.950 BC

Chao Wang

Western Zhou.

Mu Wang

Kung Wang

I Wang

Hsiao Wang

I Wang

878 BC

Li Wang

841 BC

First solid date in Chinese chronology.

827 BC

Hsüan Wang

781 - 771 BC

Yu Wang

Western Zhou.

FeatureMiddle Zhou Period
771 - 473 BC

771 BC

P'ing Wang

Eastern Zhou.

722 - 481 BC

Spring and Autumn Period.

719 BC

Huan Wang

696 BC

Chuang Wang

681 BC

Hsi Wang

676 BC

Hui Wang

651 BC

Hsiang Wang

618 BC

Ch'ing Wang

612 BC

K'uang Wang

606 BC

Ting Wang

585 BC

Chien Wang

571 BC

Ling Wang

544 BC

Ching Wang

519 BC

Ching Wang

Warring States Era
481 - 221 BC

Late Zhou Period
472 - 256 BC

475 BC

Yüan Wang

468 BC

Chêng-ting Wang

440 BC

K'ao Wang

425 BC

Wei-lieh Wang

401 BC

An Wang

c.400 BC

The dynasty collapses and fragments.

375 BC

Lieh Wang

368 BC

Hsien Wang

320 BC

Shên-ching Wang

314 - 256 BC

Nan Wang

King of Chou.

311 - 279 BC

Chao-hsiang Wang

King of Yen.

Ch'in / Qin Dynasty
255 - 207 BC

The kingdom of Qin was the westernmost of the seven kingdoms, forming a wide north-south barrier to the barbarian lands beyond, and bordering the kingdom of Zhao to the east. In his time as the third ruler of the dynasty, Wang Chêng was the most feared leader, regarded as a common threat by all the other kingdoms. His ruthless drive to unite China saw him conquer the others one by one. (There are numerous tales of assassins sent to kill the king, one of which is depicted in the Chinese feature film, Hero / Ying Xiong.)

250 BC

Hsiao-wên Wang

King of Qin.

249 BC

Chuang-hsing Wang

King of Qin.

247 - 221 BC

Wang Chêng

King of Qin. Upon the reunification of China, he changed his name.

222 BC

The Qin conquer the Yen/Yan, who also rule Korean Chosen.

221 BC

FeatureThe Warring States Period comes to an end as the Qin conquer the last remaining kingdoms and unify China. Emperor Shi Huangdi begins construction of the Great Wall to keep out the barbarians and ensure peace for China. He also creates a terracotta army to safeguard him in the afterlife.

In around 220 BC, Greco-Bactrians may lead expeditions as far as Kashgar and Urumqi in Chinese Turkestan, establishing the first known contacts between China and the West. The name Daxia appears in Chinese records from around this time to designate a mythical kingdom in the West, possibly referring to Bactria itself.

221 - 210 BC

Shi Huangdi / Shih-huang-ti / Qin Shihuang

Formerly Wang Chêng. Reunified China.

210 - 207 BC

Erh-shih-huang-ti

Puppet ruler. Second son. Committed suicide.

207 BC

?

Puppet ruler.

Early Han (Western) Dynasty
207 BC - AD 25

Travellers to Japan under the Wei Dynasty reported on its early development as a kingdom.

207 - 202 BC

Qin/Han War.

207 -202 BC

Kao Tsu

202 - 195 BC

Liu Bang

195 - 180 BC

Empress Lü

194 BC

Korean Old Chosen rebels against Chinese rule and regains independence as Wiman Chosen.

195 - 187 BC

Hui Ti

187 - 179 BC

Lu Hou

179 - 156 BC

Wên Ti

Son of Liu Bang.

156 - 140 BC

Ching Ti

140 - 87 BC

Wu Di / Wu Ti

c.140 - 130 BC

Following a long migration from the Chinese border in about 165 BC, the Tocharians/Yuezhi follow the Scythians in invading Bactria. The Yuezhi are later united under one of their tribes, the Kushans, to form an empire which stretches into India.

126 BC

The name Daxia is used by the explorer Zhang Qian to designate Bactria.

111 BC

The Chieu rulers of Nam Viet are defeated and conquered by China, and only re-emerge in AD 544.

90s BC

The nomadic Yancai are recorded by Sima Qian, centred on the northern shore of the Aral Sea. Their territory lays to the north-west of the Kangju nomadic federation, to whom they hold some similarities in terms of customs.

86 - 73 BC

Chao Ti

73 - 48 BC

Hsüan Ti

48 - 32 BC

Yuan Ti

32 - 6 BC

Ch'eng Ti

6 BC - AD 1

Ai Ti

AD 1

P'ing Ti

Eight year-old.

1 - 5

Wang Mang

5 - 9

Ju-tzu

Child.

Hsin / Xin (New) Dynasty
AD 9 - 23

9 - 23

Wang Mang

Later Han (Eastern) Restoration
AD 23 - 220

23 - 55

Guang wu di / Kuang-wu Ti

55 - 76

Ming Ti

61 - 67

Kashyapa Matanga introduces Buddhism to China.

76 - 89

Chang Ti

89 - 106

Ho Ti

c.90 - 112

The Kushan emperor, Kadphises II, expands the borders of his empire up to the limits of Chinese influence, and even sends ambassadors to the imperial court.

106 - 107

Shang Ti

107 - 126

An Ti

c.125

By now, in Chinese records, the Yancai have become the Alanliao (or the 'old Yancai') and have expanded towards the Caspian Sea. They appear to remain dependent upon the Kangju.

126 - 145

Shun Ti

c.132

The successor to the Kushan throne, Kanishka, is apparently killed by his own soldiers during one of his military expeditions to China.

145 - 146

Ch'ung Ti

146 - 147

Chih Ti

147 - 168

Huan Ti

168 - 189

Lingdi / Ling Ti

189 - 220

Xiandi / Hsien Ti

Puppet. Period of anarchy.

Warlords of the Three Kingdoms
AD 220 - 265

Minor Han (Shu Han) Dynasty
AD 221 - 265

220 - 223

Cao Pei / Chao-lieh Ti (Wei Dyn)

Wei King.

223 - 263

Hou Chu

263

The Shu kingdom is subjugated.

Wei Dynasty
AD 220 - 265

Travellers to Japan under the Wei Dynasty reported on its early development as a kingdom.

c.168 - 207

A Chinese chronicle known as Sanguozhi records that the Kushan king, Vasudeva I sends a tribute to Cao Rui of Wei. The vacuum created by the Chinese retreat in Central Asia is apparently filled by Vasudeva.

244

The Wei capture the capital of Korean Koguryo.

c.240s - 250s

The Alans are no longer dependent upon the Kangju, as recorded by the Weilüe history of the Wei dynasty.

Wu Dynasty
AD 220 - 258

265 - 589

China is split into North and South kingdoms.

Jin / Tsin Dynasty
AD 265 - 589

North China

South China

Western Jin / Tsin Dynasty
AD 265 - 317

The Western Tsin were driven out of Korea in 313.

Eastern Jin / Tsin Dynasty
AD 317 - 420

265 - 290

Wu Ti / Sima Yan

317 - 323

Jin Sima (Yuan Di)

280

The Wu Kingdom is subjugated.

323 - 326

Ming Ti

290

Hui Ti

326 - 343

Ch'êng Ti

307

Huai Ti

343 - 345

K'ang Ti

307

The Succession Civil Wars take place.

345 - 362

Mu Ti

308 - 310

Liu Yuan

362 - 366

Ai Ti

313

Min Ti

366 - 371

Fei Ti

371 - 373

Chien-wên Ti

373 - 397

Hsiao-wu Ti

Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians
AD 317 - 386

397 - 419

An Ti

1. Northern Wei [Wèi] Dynasty AD 386 - 534

419 - 420

Kung Ti / Gong

Abdicated.

(Unknown)

? - 471

Tuoba Hung

471 - ?

Xiaowen

Sung / Song (Anterior) Dynasty AD 420 - 479

(Unknown)

420 - 423

Wu Ti

(Unknown)

423 - 424

Fei Ti

- 515

(Unknown)

424 - 454

Wen Ti

515 - 529

Empress Dowager Ling

454 - 465

Hsiao-wu Ti

515 - 528

(Unknown)

465 - 473

Ming Ti

(Unknown)

473 - 477

Fei Ti

528 - 529

(Unknown)

477 - 479

Shun Ti

529 - 534

(Unknown)

534

Northern Wei splits into Eastern and Western Wei, Chi and Zhou.

Ch'i / Qi (Southern) Dynasty AD 479 - 502

2. Western Wei Dynasty AD 535 - 556

479 - 483

Kao Ti

535 - ?

(Unknown)

483 - 494

Wu Ti

? -556

(Unknown)

494 - 499

Ming Ti

556

Western Wei becomes Northern Zhou.

499 - 501

Tung Hun Ho

501 - 502

Ho Ti

3. Eastern Wei Dynasty AD 534 - 550

550

Eastern Wei becomes Northern Chi.

Liang (Southern) Dynasty AD 502 - 557

502 - 549

Wu Ti

4. Northern Ch'i [Qí] Dynasty AD 550 - 577

550 - 552

Chien-wên Ti

577

Conquered by Northern Zhou.

552 - 555

Yüan Ti

555 - 557

Ching Ti

5. Northern Chou [Zhou] Dynasty AD 557 - 581

(Unknown)

Chen (Southern) Dynasty AD 549 - 589

? - 578

Wu

557 - 560

Wu Ti

578 - 581

Yu-wen Bin

560 - 567

Wên Ti

Seven unknown rulers in this period

567 - 569

Fei Ti

577

Conquers Northern Chi.

569 - 583

Hsuan Ti

583 - 589

Hou Chu

589

North conquers South and unites China.

FeatureSui Dynasty
AD 590 - 617

590 - 604

Yang Jian / Chien(Wen Ti)

Usurper General.

603

The Early Li Dynasty of Nam Viet is conquered, and remains under Chinese control until 939.

604 - 617

Yangdi / Yang Kuang

612

The Korean state of Koguryo is invaded, but the Chinese are defeated.

617

Kung Ti

Tang / T'ang Dynasty
AD 617 - 689

617 - 626

Li Yuan (Gaozu / Kao Tsu)

626 - 649

Taizong (T'ai Tsung / Li Shih-min)

630 - 700

The legendary life of Ti Jen-chieh (Di Renjie), or Judge Dee. Nestorian missionaries arrive in Ch'ang-an in 635. The conquest of the Tarim Basin takes place in 645.

645 - 647

An attempt to occupy Korean Koguryo fails.

647

The emperor sends an emissary to the Indian kingdom of Thaneshwar expecting it to meet Harsha Vardhana, but finding a usurper, Arjuna, on the throne.

649 - 683

Gaozong / Kao Tsung

659 - 665

Transoxania (above and east of Persia) is occupied.

660

The Korean kingdom of Paekche is conquered.

668 - 676

Korean Silla is occupied. Koguryo falls.

683 - 689

Chung Tsung

Son of Kao Tsung.

Chou / Zhou Dynasty
AD 689 - 705

689 - 705

Empress Wu Zhao

Wei Dynasty
AD 705 - 710

705 - 710

?

Name unknown.

Tang Dynasty Restoration
AD 710 - 906

710

Chung Tsun

Restored.

710 - 712

Jui Tsung

712 - 756

Hsuan Tsung / Xuanzong

751

The battle of Talas. Arabs defeat the Chinese under Kao Hsien-chih, but advance no further into Central Asia.

Greater Yen Dynasty
AD 756 - 761

756 - 757

General An Lushan

Usurper rebel.

757

?

Son.

Tang Dynasty Continued

756 - 762

Su Tsung

763

The Chinese lose the Tarim Basin to the Tibetans.

762 - 780

Daizong / T'ai Tsung

780 - 805

Tê Tsung

805 - 806

Shun Tsung

806 - 821

Hsien Tsung

821 - 825

Mu Tsung

825 - 827

Ching Tsung

827 - 841

Wen Tsung

841 - 847

Wu Tsung

847 - 860

Hsüan Tsung

860 - 874

Yi Tsung

874 - 889

Hsi Tsung

889 - 904

Chao Tsung

904 - 906

Chao-hsüan Ti

907 - 1227

Tartar tribes encroach on China's borders and found several of their own dynasties, ruling areas of China itself. This leads to much instability within Chinese China, and a period of civil war.

Liao (Khitan) Tartar Dynasty
AD 907 - 1125

The Liao empire was located largely in northern China and eastern Mongolia.

1125

The Liao are displaced by the Kin/Chin and retreat into Central Asia where they form a short-lived empire, the Qara-Khitai. Their departure allows the Khamag Mongols to begin to play a more pivotal role on the Mongolian plains.

Civil War Period of the Five Dynasties
AD 907 - 960

1. Liang (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 907 - 923

907 - 915

T'ai Tau

915 - 923

Mo Ti

2. T'ang (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 923 - 936

923 - 926

Chuang Tsung

926 - 934

Ming Tsung

934 - 936

Min Ti

3. Tsin / Jin (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 936 - 947

936 - 943

Kao Tsu

939

Nam Viet briefly reasserts its independence with the founding of the Ngo Dynasty.

943 - 947

Ch'u Ti

4. Han (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 947 - 951

947 - 951

Kao Tsu

Same as Tsin ruler?

5. Chou / Zhou (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 951 - 960

951 - 954

T'ai Tsu

954 - 960

Shih Tsung

Sung / Song (Northern) Dynasty
AD 960 - 1127

960

Chao Kuang-yin

Re-imposed unity.

960 - 976

T'ai Tsu

965 - 968

Nam Viet is briefly controlled by China.

976 - 998

T'ai Tsung

981

An attempted invasion of Nam Viet is repulsed.

998 - 1023

Chên Tsung

1023 - 1064

Jên Tsung

1064 - 1068

Ying Tsung

1068 - 1086

Shên Tsung

1086 - 1101

Chê Tsung

1101 - 1126

Hui Tsung

1126 - 1127

Ch'in Tsung

1127

Displaced by the Kin / Chin.

Hsi-Hsia / Xi Xia (Western Xia / Tangut) Tartar State
AD 990 - (1032) -1227

1209 - 1210

The Mongols under Chingiz Khan campaign against the Hsi-Hsia, forcing the payment of tribute to placate them. As the Mongol camp has been flooded, they accept.

1226 - 1227

Although they had been defeated by the Mongols in 1210, the Hsi-Hsia had not been properly subjugated. Now, with the Jin fighting back against Mongol dominance, they refuse to pay tribute, so the aging Chingiz Khan conducts one final campaign against them, overthrowing them. Their Tarter state is subsumed within the Mongol empire.

Kin / Chin / Jin (Jurchen / Nü-Chên) Tartar Dynasty
AD 1115 - 1234

Based in northern China. The Jin dynasty was formed by the Jurchen people. They lost a large swathe of their territory to the Mongols in 1211-1216, but were able to survive and even fight back until a final Mongol campaign swept them away. A century of Jin rule of the steppes was ended and they became relatively insignificant in the face of Mongol greatness. Renaming themselves in the seventeenth century, they re-emerged to rule China as the Manchu.

1130

The sudden rise to power of the Mongols is very temporary at first, but lasts long enough for them to defend their lands from Jin attacks and force the Jin to pay tribute.

1156

Ambaghai of the Khamag Mongols delivers his daughter to the Tartars in preparation for her wedding to one of their number. The Tartars take him prisoner and hand him over to the Jin who promptly execute him. The Tartar betrayal prompts Ambaghai's successor to engage them in a series of battles.

1211 - 1216

The Jin empire is attacked by the Mongols, but the initial invasion is foiled when Chingiz Khan is wounded and retires to Mongolia. In 1213, he divides his army in three, the other two sections falling under the command of his sons. The Jin empire is devastated by this three-pronged attack, and its capital at Zhongdu (modern Beijing) is captured in 1214, while the following year areas of territory to the north of the Huang He (Yellow River) fall under Mongol control. The Jin move their capital southwards Kai-feng.

1223

Following the initial Mongol victories of 1211-1216, Chingiz Khan had appointed Mukali as his commander in northern China. Mukali dies in 1223, and the Jin begin a fierce resurgence against their Mongol enemy.

1231 - 1234

A large Mongol army led by Ogedei Khan, with Subedei and Tolui, launch a fresh campaign against the Jin. After a series of setbacks, the Mongols approach the Jin capital at Kai-feng in 1234 with 20,000 Song Chinese auxiliaries. The city is taken and the Jin fall, ending the northern empire and its rule of the steppes.

1373

Not content with kicking the Mongols out of China, the Ming emperor begins a military push into Mongolia, albeit unsuccessfully. The Mongol General Köke Temür defeats 15,000 Ming soldiers at the River Orkhon. The Mongols recapture Funin and Suijin districts in Sinhe, Liaoning and Hebei provinces, cutting off the Ming from Liadong with the help of the Jurchen.

Liao (Qara-Khitaï) (Western) Tartar Dynasty
AD 1125 - (1141) -1218

After being ousted from China in 1125, the Qara-Khitai ruled the Transoxiana region from Samarkand.

1217 - 1218

Conquered by Mongols.

FeatureSung / Song (Southern) Dynasty
AD 1127 - 1279

1127 - 1163

Kao Tsung

1163 - 1190

Hsiao Tsung

1190 - 1195

Kuang Tsung

1195 - 1225

Ning Tsung

1225 - 1265

Li Tsung

1252

The invasion of the Sung empire by the Mongols begins. It is the last of the three Chinese powers to remain independent and unconquered to date. Mongke Khan leads the campaign himself, while entrusting a Middle Eastern campaign to Hulegu.

1265 - 1275

Tu Tsung

1275 - 1276

Kung Tsung

1276 - 1278

Tuan Tsung

1278 - 1279

Ti Ping

Killed in battle.

1267 - 1276

Hangzhou, the Sung capital in the south, is conquered by the Mongols. The great khans now concentrate their rule almost entirely on China itself, forming the Yuan dynasty to rule a united China.

Yuan (Mongolian) Dynasty
AD 1279 - 1368

FeatureThe Great Khans of the Mongol empire took control of China through a series of conquests, the last of these being the Southern Sung. The Mongol leader, Temüjin, had been named Chingiz Khan by the Chinese emperor, before he and his descendants began conquering China. In 1260-1264, the Mongol empire was engulfed in a civil war between two aspirants for the position of great khan. Kublai and Ariq-Boke were both elected to the position in 1260 at two separate 'khuriltai', with Kublai basing himself in China and Ariq-Boke at Karakorum. When Kublai was victorious in 1264, he retained China as his main base, implying (or perhaps establishing) China as the most important Mongol possession. It was only a matter of time before China became central to the great khans, and the Mongol dynasty was christened the Yuan by Kublai Khan in 1279, from which time he was emperor of the Chinese as well at great khan of the Mongols.

1267 - 1279

The Southern Sung are conquered and with that the Great Khans of the Mongols concentrate their rule almost entirely on China itself. With this, effective control of a single Mongol empire has ended, with each of the main 'ulus' (inheritances) now being ruled independently, albeit with nominal control being exercised by the great Kublai during his lifetime.

1279 - 1294

Qubilai / Kublai Khan

Great Khan. Shih Tsu in 1280. Ruled China from 1279.

1274 - 1294

Venetian trader Marco Polo arrives in Kanbaliq on a visit to the court of Kublai Khan. He remains in China for seventeen years, and returns to Venice after completing a diplomatic mission for the emperor. His voyage, opening up new sea routes, contributes to a marked decline in the use of the ancient Silk Road within 150 years of his return home.

Also in 1274, the first Mongol invasion of Japan is defeated through bad weather conditions, with the outnumbered Japanese facing superior and much more modern forces. The defeat is an unexpected one for the otherwise near-universally victorious Mongols.

First Mongol invasion of Japan
This illustration of the first Mongol attempt to invade Japan shows the Mongol fleet being smashed to pieces by the 'divine wind' that saved the Japanese

1277 - 1278

Burma is invaded, and a puppet government is installed there. While it is a victory, it is far from the total conquest and domination that previous great khans would have expected.

1281

The second Mongol invasion of Japan is again defeated through bad weather conditions. The Mongols suffer around seventy-five per cent casualties and a clear limit is set on their expansion in Asia. Japan praises the kamikaze, or 'divine wind', which has saved it twice from invasion.

1294

With the death of Kublai Khan, the Yuan dynasty survives under his successor, but the Mongol empire effectively ceases to exist. There are no further Khakhans (great khans), and command of the empire's territory is now permanently divided into four distinct and fully independent kingdoms: the Golden Horde (made up of the Blue Horde and White Horde), the Il-Khanate, Mughulistan, and Yuan China, which incorporates Mongolia and much of southern Siberia, along with governing Tibet through the institution of the Xuanzheng Yuan, and with Korea as a tributary state. Mongolia is governed by the nominated heir to the imperial throne who resides in Karakorum.

1294 - 1307

Temur Öljeytu Khan

Grandson via Crown Prince Zhenjin. Ch'eng Tsung in 1295.

1295

Following his accession, Mahmud Ghazan of the Il-Khanate accepts Islam, marking a departure in the politics of Mongol Persia. From this point onwards, despite Ghazan maintaining strong links with the Yuan, the Il-Khanate becomes increasingly Islamicised, turning away from its Mongol origins.

1296

Temur finds that he has to quell revolts in the mountainous south-west of the Chinese lands. Tribal chieftains such as the female leader Shejie and her contemporary, Song Longji, refuse to submit to the Yuan, so a campaign taking several months has to be undertaken to suppress them.

1301

Thanks to the support of Kaidu of Mughulistan for the opposing faction in the White Horde dynastic conflict, Buyan has won support both from Great Khan Temur and Mahmud Ghazan of the Il-Khanate. Temur now organises a response against Kaidu, ending with the latter's defeat at the bloody Battle of the River Zawkhan. Kaidu dies shortly afterwards.

1304

The Chaghatayids under Du'a and Chapar, son of Kaidu, the Golden Horde under Toqta, and the Il-Khanate under Mahmud Ghazan negotiate peace with Temur Khan so that trade and diplomatic relations are not harmed by constant bickering and fighting. The Yuan emperor is also accepted as the nominal overlord of the three junior Mongol states. As is customary (but not always observed in recent times), Temur designates Öljeytu as the new Il-Khan. Soon afterwards, the former allies Du'a and Chapar fall out over the territory they control within Mughulistan, so Temur backs the rightful ruler, Du'a, and sends a large army into the region in 1306, forcing Chapar to surrender.

1307 - 1311

Qayshan Guluk / Khaisan / Hai-Shan

Son of Darmabala. Wu Tsung in 1308.

1308 - 1309

The Seljuq sultanate of Rum collapses and the area is ruled through regional governors by the Mongols. In the same year, Qayshan nominates Ch'ungson as the successor to King Ch'unguyol of the Koryo kingdom of Korea. In addition, the rebellious Chapar and his key supporters in Mughulistan appear before Qayshan to submit to him, ending the threat posed by them to stability in the empire.

Mongol horse warrior
The Mongols in China, such as this horse archer (a typical Mongol warrior) gradually became more and more Sinicised

1311 - 1320

Ayurparibhadra / Ayurbarwada

Brother. Jên Tsung in 1312.

1311

Following the death of Qayshan and the succession of Ayurparibhadra, their mother, Dagi, leads the aggressive Khunggiad faction in the imperial court to purge it of Qayshan's officials and supporters. Qayshan's son and Ayurparibhadra's agreed successor, Toq-Temur, is driven out. Under Ayurparibhadra, the Yuan become increasingly integrated into Chinese culture.

1320 - 1323

Suddhipala Gege'en / Shidebala

Son. Ying Tsung in 1321. Assassinated.

1323

A promising reign under Suddhipala is cut short when he is assassinated by the embittered former followers of the late Empress Dagi. They carry out the act to avoid possible action against them for supporting Dagi and her (equally late) puppet minister, Temüder. The head of the assassins is Temüder's son, Tegshi. He offers the throne to Yesun-Temur, and he accepts, but not until after he has purged the court of Tegshi's faction to avoid becoming a puppet.

1323 - 1328

Yesun-Temur

Tai-ting Ti in 1324.

1328

Arigaba Aragibag / Ragibagh

Son. Defeated by his rival.

1328

Arigaba succeeds his father, installed by Yesun-Temur's Muslim aide, Dawlat Shah. Before that succession can be made official, an uprising is triggered by nobles who are dissatisfied with Yesun-Temur's monopolisation of power under a few select and very powerful officials. Arigaba leads an army against them but their commander, a Mongolised Kipchak general named El Temür, defeats them. The capital is seized by El Temür and Jayaatu Khan while Arigaba disappears, presumably murdered.

1328 - 1329

Jayaatu Khan / Jijaghatu Toq-Temur

Son of Qayshan. Ming Tsung in 1329.

1328 - 1329

During the successful campaign by El Temür and Jayaatu Khan to capture the imperial throne, Qoshila Qutuqtu begins his own campaign against them in Mongolia. He enters Mongolia from the Tarbagatai region of the Khangai Mountains with support from the Chaghatayid khans, Eljigedey and Du'a Temur. The nobles of Mongolia also support him, so he has himself declared emperor on 27 February at a location to the north of Karakorum. Jayaatu Khan recognises that he has been defeated and abdicates.

1329

Khutughtu Khan / Qoshila Qutuqtu

Wen Tsung? In 1330? Died suddenly.

1329

Ruling as Khutughtu Khan, Qoshila accepts Jayaatu Khan as his heir and the two meet at a banquet. The new khan is busy filling imperial positions with his own people so it seems likely that it is El Temür who is responsible for his unexpected death just four days after the banquet, probably because he fears losing his own power and influence to other Mongols and Chaghatayids (however, conflicting sources state that the khan's own son, Toghan-Temur, is responsible). Now Jayaatu Khan is able to resume his position on the throne after the briefest of interludes.

1329 - 1332

Jayaatu Khan / Jijaghatu Toq-Temur

Restored as Khutughtu Khan's heir.

1332

Jayaatu Khan's own son and designated heir, Aratnadara, has already died just just a month after being nominated in 1331. As a result, Jayaatu nominates Toghan-Temur as his heir. El Temür resists this as it is Toghan-Temur who is strongly suspected of murdering his father (lending support to the alternative report for this event in 1329). Instead, Toghan-Temur's younger brother, Rinchenpal, is nominated, and duly succeeds upon Jayaatu's death.

1332 - 1333

Rinchenpal Irinchibal / Rinchinbal Khan

Son of Qoshila. Aged 6 at accession. Died 53 days later.

1333 - 1368

Toghan-Temur

Brother. Shun Ti in 1333. Fled to Mongolia. Died in Karakorum.

1340s

The Red Turban Army is created as a result of opposition to the faltering, unpopular, and despotic Mongol rulers by the followers of the White Lotus sect of Buddhism. Kuo Tsu-hsing founds the army, named after the red turbans its members wear and the red banners they carry. The rebellion starts slowly, with Yuan officials being assaulted, but it blossoms, although overtures towards the Korean Koryo are repulsed militarily by Ch'unajong.

Red Turban warrior fighting a Mongol
A Mongol warrior defends himself against a Red Turban Army warrior with his characteristic red headband

1351

When an armed White Lotus rebellion is uncovered and terminated, along with one of the army's prominant leaders, others come forward to establish the Red Turban Army. This sparks similar rebellions to the south of the Yangtze which collectively use the name Southern Red Turbans.

1356 - 1367

One of the more prominent Red Turban Army leaders is Chu Yüan-chang (Zhu Yuanzhang). He carries out a series of campaigns against his own Red Turban Army rivals until he is dominant. Then he leads the popular fight against the Yuan emperor.

1368

The Mongols are expelled from China by Chu Yüan-chang when he captures Dadu (modern Beijing). Toghan-Temur flees to Mongolia and dies in Karakorum two years later, while Chu Yüan-chang seizes the throne and is proclaimed the first Ming emperor of a reunited China. This act effectively dissolves the Mongol empire. The surviving khanates, the Blue Horde, White Horde, and Chaghatayids (the Il-Khans have already fallen), are now ruled as entirely independent kingdoms in their own right. The descendents of Kublai Khan and the great khans continue to rule locally in Mongolia until the seventeenth century, and are known to China as the Northern Yuan.

FeatureMing (Bright) Dynasty
AD 1368 - 1644

The founder of the Ming dynasty, Chu Yüan-chang, was a key leader in the Red Turban Army, a rebel military force that was created to oppose the increasingly unpopular Yuan dynasty emperors. Once in a position of command, Chu Yüan-chang showed a level of single-minded ruthlessness in opposing and defeating his rivals for overall command of the Red Turban Army, before opposing the Yuan emperor himself. Ultimately, his unifying of the rebels under a single commander led them to victory when, in 1368, the Yuan were toppled and fled China to return to Mongolia. China was back in Chinese hands.

1368 - 1398

T'ai Tsu / Chu Yüan-chang / Taizu

Ruled most of southern China from 1366. Hung Wu Era.

1372 - 1373

Not content with kicking the Mongols out of China,  Chu Yüan-chang begins a military push into Mongolia. Mongol General Köke Temür, the half-Chinese grandson of a Mongolian prince who had been known as Wang Baobao during the Yuan dynasty days) leads the defence of Mongolia. In 1373 he defeats 15,000 Ming soldiers at the River Orkhon. The Mongols recapture Funin and Suijin districts in Sinhe, Liaoning and Hebei provinces, cutting off the Ming from Liadong with the help of the Jurchen (former rulers of the Jin dynasty which itself had been defeated by the Mongols).

1380 - 1381

Chu Yüan-chang invades Mongolia again, reaching Karakorum, which is looted. Other Mongol cities are also attacked and looted, but a further invasion the following year is repulsed. However, the Yuan loyalists who had been holding out in the southern Chinese territory of Yunnan are finally defeated in the same year.

1387 - 1388

A Mongolian official in the former north-eastern Chinese province of Liaoyang (now in Mongolian hands) invades Liaodong. Nahachu envisions a restoration of the Yuan dynasty in China, but he and his army of about 200,000, suffering in the midst of a famine, are persuaded to surrender by Ming diplomacy.

1390s

The third grouping of Mongols, the Uriyangkhai, surrender to the Ming, along with some Borjigin princes. Led by Ukshal Khan's former minister, Necelai, the Mongols are divided by the Ming into three sub-groups, known as the Three Guards: Doyin, Fuyu, and Tai'nin. They are settled as a buffer force in territory that becomes the modern Inner Mongolia. Necelai is killed by Shirmen, the late Mongol khan's chingsang who is now allied to Jorightu Khan.

1398 - 1402

Civil War between rival claimants.

1398 - 1402

Hui Ti

Chien-wen Era.

1402 - 1425

Ch'eng Tsu

FeatureYung-Lo Era.

1402 - 1425

Ch'eng Tsu moves the capital from Nanking (Nan-ching / Nanjing) to Peking (Pei-ching / Beijing).

1407 - 1428

Nam Viet is occupied by China.

1409 - 1422

Ch'eng Tsu invades Mongolian lands three times in this period, in 1409, 1414, and 1422. The first time he is repulsed by Öljei Temür Khan, while the Oirats successfully defend Mongolia on the other occasions, showing that the Mongols are still powerful enough to ably defend themselves against Chinese aggression. Continually foiled on the battlefield, the emperor begins a policy of politically dividing the Mongols by conspiring to encourage internecine feuding.

1415

The Mongols under Delbeg are defeated in a phyrric victory for the Ming in which nothing is really gained. Despite penetrating as far as the River Tuul, the Ming subsequently withdraw.

1425 - 1426

Jen Tsung

Hung-hsi Era.

1426 - 1436

Hsüan Tsung

Hsuan-te Era.

1436 - 1450

Ying Tsung

Cheng-T'ung Era.

1449

The Mongol warlord, Esen Tayisi, has been leading diplomatic attempts to negotiate with Emperor Ying Tsung to improve trading conditions with China. Finding that he has been rebuffed, Esen Tayisi leads a startling military campaign which defeats a force of 50,000 Chinese, captures the emperor and besieges Beijing.

Ming artillery
Ming artillery was no defence against the campaign conducted by Mongol Esen Tayisi

1450 - 1457

T'ai Tsung / Ching Ti

Ching-t'ai Era.

1457 - 1465

Ying Tsung

Restored. T'ien-shun Era.

1465 - 1488

Hsien Tsung

Ch'eng-hua Era.

1488 - 1506

Hsiao Tsung

Hung-chih Era.

1506 - 1522

Wu Tsung

Cheng-te Era.

1522 - 1567

Shih Tsung

Chia-tsing Era.

1535 - 1557

The Portuguese are allowed to begin trading at Macau in 1535, and by 1557 they are able to establish a permanent base.

1547 - 1551

The Mongol ruler, Daraisung Guden Khan, is unable to quash the growing power and arrogance of Altan Khan of the Tümet Mongol subgroup. Altan Khan forces Daraisung to flee eastwards, and the two only come to a compromise in 1551. Altan accepts Daraisung's suzerainty in return for being granted the title 'Geegen Khan' for himself. The more senior khan has to relocate his capital to a location near Manchuria, and his distance from the heartland of Mongol territory engenders a further decline in the authority of his position.

1567 - 1573

Mu Tsung / Chu Tsai-hou

Lung-ch'ing Era.

1573 - 1620

Shên Tsung / Chu I-chun

Wan-Li Era.

1620 - 1621

Kuang Tsung / Chu Ch'ang-lo

T'ai-ch'ang Era.

1621 - 1628

Hsi Tsung

T'ien-ch'i Era.

1628 - 1644

Szu (Kuang) Tsung / Chu Yu-chien

Hanged himself upon Manchu approach. Ch'ung-chen Era.

1634

Legdan Hutuhtu Khan is the last of the Borjigin khans, ruling from Chahar. He has been unpopular and has treated his fellow Mongols harshly, while pursuing an alliance with the Ming. Two of the Mongol subgroups under his direct rule, the Jarud and Khorchin, have been intermarrying with the Manchu, and the khan's court has lost most of its authority to them. Legdan's death signals the end of the khanship that has descended directly from Chingiz Khan and a virtual surrendering of Inner Mongolia to the Manchu.

1644

Pei-ching is occupied by rebels, the emperor commits suicide, and the rebels are thrown out by Manchuria. A Manchurian occupation begins in the north, while an independent remnant of the Ming briefly survives in the south.

Ming (Southern) Dynasty
AD 1644 - 1662

1644 - 1645

Fu Wang, Prince of Fu / Chu Yu-sung

Hung-kuang Era.

1645 - 1646

Tang Wang / Chu Yü-chien

Lung-wu Era.

1646 - 1662

Yung-ming Wang / Chu Yu-lang

Yung-li Era.

1662

The emperor is captured in Burma in 1661, and executed by Manchus in 1662.

FeatureManchu Ch'ing / Qin (Clear) Dynasty
AD 1644 - 1911

The Manchu were a Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria (modern north-eastern China). They adopted the Manchu name in the seventeenth century, having previously been known as the Jurchen, rulers of the Jin dynasty of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In 1634 they conquered the weakening Chahar Mongols, securing Inner Mongolia.

1644 - 1662

Shih Tsu

No Era.

1662 - 1723

Shêng Tsu

K'ang-Hsi Era.

1723 - 1736

Shih Tsung

Yung-chêng Era.

1736 - 1796

Kao Tsung

Ch'ien-Lung Era.

1771

The division of the Mongolian Koshut tribe of Oirats which had migrated to the Volga in the seventeenth century now returns to Zungaria where they are resettled by the Ching and survive into modern times.

1792

Nepalese expansion is halted by defeat at the hands of the Chinese in Tibet.

1796 - 1821

Jên Tsung

Chia-ch'ing Era.

1821 - 1851

Hsüan Tsung

Tao-kuang Era.

1851 - 1862

Wen Tsung

Hsien-fêng Era.

1860

British troops occupy Beijing, effectively ending the Second Opium War and humiliating the Ching dynasty. The Taiping rebels operating from their capital cities of Nanking and Suzhou capture large areas of imperial China, claiming fully half of it by 1861.The corrupt and ineffective imperial army is in full retreat on all fronts. Desperate to protect Beijing, the Ching minister of war, Lord Di, accepts any and all volunteers, bandits and beggars into the ragtag Ching army. It is a bandit band of 800 men that forms the Shan Army, a force that is led by General Pang Qing-Yun that will turn the tide of the war.

1862 - 1908

Tz'u Hsi (Cixi) the Empress Dowager

No Era.

1862 - 1875

Mu Tsung

T'ung-chih Era.

1870

After successfully taking Suzhou and then Nanking to end the Taiping rebellion, on 8 April 1870 General Pang Qing-Yun is assassinated on the way to his inauguration as governor of Nanking. General Pang's murder remains one of the Ching dynasty's unsolved crimes (the main events of the rebellion and the murder are depicted in the Jet Li feature film, The Warlords, 2008).

1875 - 1909

Tê Tsung

Kuang-hsu Era.

1908

On 18 June, Empress Dowager Cixi orders the killing of all foreigners in China, in support of the Boxer Rebellion.

1909 - 1911

Mo Ti (Pu Yi)

Hsuan-t'ung Era.

1911

The last Chinese emperor is deposed by republicans.

1949

The republic of China is conquered by the communist forces of Mao Tse Tung. The New Republic of China is declared on Taiwan by the exiled General Chiang Kai Chek.

1950 - 1953

After several years of increasingly hostile small scale actions along the thirty-eighth parallel, North Korea's forces attack South Korea on 25 June 1950. North Korean troops sweep south, capturing most of the country, but an allied army pushes the North Koreans back to the Manchurian border. This prompts Communist China to intervene, pouring troops across the frontier and taking Korea as far south as Seoul. By 1951 the allies have stabilised a front line around the thirty-eighth parallel and the remainder of the Korean War consists of heavy fighting in this region, until a ceasefire is agreed in July 1953.

1962

A land dispute with India leads to a Chinese invasion of the country's border territories. Indian troops face a humiliating defeat.

1999

The Portuguese colony of Macau is handed back to China on 20 December. The enclave is guaranteed a high degree of continued autonomy until 2049 at the earliest, maintaining everything except defence and foreign affairs for itself.

2010

China, a long-term ally of Pakistan, announces that it will set up nuclear stations in the country similar to those of the India-US civilian nuclear deal amidst international condemnation considering Pakistan's nuclear proliferation record.