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China
Ancient Chinese chronicles recount the lives and
exploits of a succession of dynastic rulers that extends back to the
twenty-fourth century BC. However, the only surviving scrolls date from more than
2,000 years later, so how much is fact and how much is reverent fiction may
never be known. These early dynasties were drawn from a blending of small
native tribes that developed and expanded until something approaching modern
China had been created. |
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Yangshao & Longshan Cultures
fl c. 3000 BC
Relics from these early Chinese cultures have been
found at the Erlitou Bronze Age site in Henan Province. |
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The Legendary Period
The Age of the
Five Rulers, lasting for 647 years. |
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Hsia / Xia Dynasty / Erlitou Culture
2205 - 1766 BC (1962 - 1523 BC)
Upper China; Longhan
Period. Yu the Great was the founder of the Xia Dynasty, the first historical dynasty of China.
His capital
was probably at Erlitou. There were sixteen succeeding emperors in this line.
The Erlitou Bronze Age site in Henan Province has its heyday during this
period, which is known as the Erlitou culture. |
2205 BC |
Yu the Great |
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? - 1766 BC |
Jie |
A tyrant. Overthrown by the
Shang. |
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c.1766 BC |
Jie is a tyrant. He is overthrown at the Battle of
Mingtiao by the Shang tribe which
lives in the lower regions of the Yellow River. |
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Shang Dynasty
(Yin Shang) / Bronze Age
1766 - 1122 BC (1523 - 1028 BC)
The Shang were originally a tribe that occupied the lower regions of the
Yellow River during the period of dominance of the
Xia dynasty. During the tyrannical
rule of Jie, the last of the Xia, the Shang established their own dynasty
under 'King Tang'. The dates given for this are varied, as several alternate
chronologies have been put forward. Apart from 1766 BC, two further dates,
1675 BC or 1523 BC, have been proposed. The Shang dynasty lasted for at
least five hundred years and was witness to thirty different emperors. As the capital of the Shang
was later based in Yin (modern Xiaotun Village, in Anyang City, Henan
Province), the dynasty is also known as the 'Yin Shang'.
Chinese names are often subject to some revision over time (perhaps most
famously with the Peking of the 1950s becoming the Beijing of the 2000s).
The names of this dynasty's rulers is no different, so two versions are
offered here. The dynasty's start and end dates cover a span of 644 years.
However, the number of years that each ruler was on the throne amounts to
663, providing a discrepancy of nineteen years that cannot otherwise be
accounted for. |
1766 BC - ? |
Ch'eng-tang / Shang
Tang |
Founded the dynasty (or in 1675 BC). Reigned 30 years. |
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c.1700 BC |
Dated to approximately 1700 BC, the palace discovered by
archaeologists at the Erlitou Bronze Age site in Henan province may be a
prototype for later Shang places of worship. It is the best-preserved palace
ever found at the site, with rammed-earth foundations and at least three
courtyards, and covers a total area of more than 2,100 square metres
(yards). The Erlitou site also contains cultural relics ranging from the
Yangshao and
Longshan cultures and the
Xia dynasty.
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The Erlitou palace was at its height during the Xia dynasty, but
was inherited by the Shang
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? / Wai Bing |
Son. Reigned 3 years. |
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? / Zong Ren |
Brother. Reigned 4 years. |
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T'ai-chia / Tai
Jia |
Grandson of Tang. Reigned 33 years. |
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Wu-ling / Wo Ding |
Son. Reigned 29 years. |
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T'ai-keng / Tai
Geng |
Brother. Reigned 25 years. |
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Hsiao-chia / Xiao
Jia |
Son. Reigned 36 years. |
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Yung-chi / Yong
Ji |
Brother. Reigned 12 years. |
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The age of harmony and peace that had been ushered in and
maintained by the first few Shang rulers suddenly wanes
under the latest. Conditions begin to deteriorate and there are multiple
attempts by the emperor's own family to overthrow him and take command of
the kingdom. Social problems begin to emerge and the emperor's power
gradually declines. |
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T'ai-wu / Tai Wu |
Brother. Reigned 75 years. |
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Chung-ting /
Zhong Ding |
Son. Reigned 11 years. |
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Wai-jen / Wai Ren |
Brother. Reigned 15 years. |
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Tsien-chia / He
Dan Jia |
Brother. Reigned 9 years. |
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Tsu-yi / Zu Yi |
Son. Reigned 19 years. |
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Tsu-yi's reign of almost two decades witnesses the
restoration of the dynasty's prosperity. |
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Tsu-hsin / Zu Xin |
Son. Reigned 16 years. |
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Ch'iang-chia / Wo
Jia |
Brother. Reigned 20 years. |
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Tsu-ting / Zu
Ding |
Son of Tsu-hsin. Reigned 32 years. |
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Nan-keng / Nang
Geng |
Son of Ch'iang-chia. Reigned 29 years. |
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Hu-chia / Yang
Jia |
Son of Tsu-ting. Reigned 7 years. |
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The country declines once more during the reign of Hu-chia. |
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P'an-keng / Pan
Geng |
Brother. Reigned 28 years. |
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c.1380 BC |
P'an-keng moves the capital to Yin, thereby
creating the amended form of the dynasty's name, Yin Shang. The country
remains prosperous during his reign, experiencing a golden age. Unfortunately, that prosperity is
short-lived, and soon fails under the next ruler. |
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Hsiao-hsin / Xiao
Xin |
Brother. Reigned 21 years. |
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Hsiao-yi / Xiao
Yi |
Brother. Reigned 21 years. |
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Wu-ting / Wu Ding |
Reigned 59 years. First historically verifiable king. |
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Wu-ting is the greatest of the Shang after P'an-keng.
He enlarges the territory under his control by conducting a war in Guifang
that lasts for three years. He subsequently takes Dapeng and Tunwei. Social
productivity is developed to a high level, including aspects of textile
manufacturing, medicine, and astronomy. His reign is one of great
achievements. |
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Tsu-kêng / Zu
Geng |
Son. Reigned 7 years. |
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Tsu-chia / Zu Jia |
Brother. Reigned 33 years. |
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Lin-hsin / Lin
Xin |
Son. Reigned 6 years. |
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K'ang-tin / Geng
Din |
Brother. Reigned 6 years. |
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Wu-yi / Wu Yi |
Son. Reigned 4 years. |
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Wên-wu-ting |
Uncertain. Not included in all lists. May be the same as
Tai Ding. |
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Ti-hsin / Tai
Ding |
Son of Wu-yi. Reigned 3 years. |
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Ti-yi / Di Yi |
Son. Reigned 37 years. |
? - 1122 BC |
? / Zhou |
Reigned 33 years. The last Shang emperor. |
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The country is in turmoil and vassals from other
countries begin to rebel. Despite the turmoil and the impending uprising,
Zhou leads a luxurious life and tortures both his ministers and his people.
This intensifies conflicts across the kingdom and the dynasty is finally
overthrown by Wu (chief of the Zhou
tribe) at the Battle of Muye, ending the long reign of the Shang. Zhou
commits suicide, but the victorious Wu allows Zhou's son to govern the Shang
tribe as a vassal. |
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Chou / Zhou / Shu Dynasty
/ Bronze Age
1122 - 255 BC (1027 - 256 BC)
Under the Zhou, people began to use the twelve branches system to record
time and set solar terms to guide agriculture. An accurate eclipse is record
in this period, and branches of medicine appear. |
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Early Zhou Period
1122 - 771 BC |
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Western Zhou
1122 - 722 BC
Capital: Hao.
Eastern Zhou
1122 - 722 BC
Capital: Chengzhou originally, then Luoyang. |
1122 - 1119 BC |
Wu Wang |
Western Zhou. |
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1122 - ? BC |
Wugeng Lufu |
Son of Zhou Shang Vassal ruler of the
Shang. |
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1119 BC |
Following the death of Wu Wang, the Shang, probably still
under Wugeng Lufu, join the Three Governors' Rebellion. Wu's brother, Zhou
Gongdan, acts as regent for the king's young son and plays a major role in
defeating the rebellion and consolidating the rule of the Zhou. Thanks to
his fiefdom being based around the Zhou capital of Chengzhou, Gongdan is
also known as Zhou Gong, Zhou Gong Dan, Shu Dan, and Zhou Dan. |
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1119 - ? BC |
Chêng Wang |
Son. |
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1119 - 1112 BC |
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Zhou Gongdan /
Chou Kung-tan |
Uncle and regent. Known colloquially as 'The Duke of
Zhou'. |
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K'ang Wang |
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c.950 BC |
Chao Wang |
Western Zhou. |
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Mu Wang |
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Kung Wang |
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I Wang |
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Hsiao Wang |
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I Wang |
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878 BC |
Li Wang |
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841 BC |
First solid date in
Chinese chronology. |
827 BC |
Hsüan Wang |
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781 - 771 BC |
Yu Wang |
Western Zhou. |
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Middle Zhou Period
771 - 473 BC |
771 BC |
P'ing Wang |
Eastern Zhou. |
722 - 481 BC |
Spring and Autumn Period. |
719 BC |
Huan Wang |
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696 BC |
Chuang Wang |
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681 BC |
Hsi Wang |
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676 BC |
Hui Wang |
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651 BC |
Hsiang Wang |
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618 BC |
Ch'ing Wang |
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612 BC |
K'uang Wang |
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606 BC |
Ting Wang |
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585 BC |
Chien Wang |
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571 BC |
Ling Wang |
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544 BC |
Ching Wang |
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519 BC |
Ching Wang |
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Warring States Era
481 - 221 BC |
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Late Zhou Period
472 - 256 BC |
475 BC |
Yüan Wang |
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468 BC |
Chêng-ting Wang |
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440 BC |
K'ao Wang |
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425 BC |
Wei-lieh Wang |
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401 BC |
An Wang |
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c.400 BC |
The dynasty collapses and
fragments. |
375 BC |
Lieh Wang |
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368 BC |
Hsien Wang |
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320 BC |
Shên-ching Wang |
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314 - 256 BC |
Nan Wang |
King of Chou. |
311 - 279 BC |
Chao-hsiang Wang |
King of Yen. |
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Ch'in / Qin Dynasty
255 - 207 BC
The kingdom of Qin was the westernmost of the seven kingdoms, forming a wide
north-south barrier to the barbarian lands beyond, and bordering the kingdom
of Zhao to the east. In his time as the third ruler of the dynasty, Wang Chêng was the most feared
leader, regarded as a common threat by all the other kingdoms. His ruthless
drive to unite China saw him conquer the others one by one. (There are
numerous tales of assassins sent to kill the king, one of which is
depicted in the Chinese feature film, Hero / Ying Xiong.) |
250 BC |
Hsiao-wên Wang |
King of Qin. |
249 BC |
Chuang-hsing Wang |
King of Qin. |
247 - 221 BC |
Wang Chêng |
King of Qin.
Upon the reunification of China, he changed his name. |
222 BC |
The
Qin conquer the Yen/Yan, who also rule Korean
Chosen. |
221 BC |
The Warring States Period
comes to an end as the Qin conquer the last remaining kingdoms and
unify China. Emperor Shi Huangdi begins construction of the Great Wall to
keep out the barbarians and ensure peace for China. He also
creates a terracotta army to safeguard him in the afterlife.
In around 220
BC, Greco-Bactrians may lead expeditions as far
as Kashgar and Urumqi in Chinese Turkestan, establishing the first known
contacts between China and the West. The name Daxia appears in Chinese
records from around this time to designate a mythical kingdom in the West,
possibly referring to Bactria itself. |
221 - 210 BC |
Shi Huangdi /
Shih-huang-ti / Qin Shihuang |
Formerly Wang Chêng. Reunified China. |
210 - 207 BC |
Erh-shih-huang-ti |
Puppet ruler. Second
son. Committed suicide. |
207 BC |
? |
Puppet ruler. |
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Early Han (Western) Dynasty
207 BC - AD 25
Travellers to Japan under the Wei Dynasty
reported on its early development as a kingdom. |
207 - 202 BC |
Qin/Han War. |
207 -202 BC |
Kao Tsu |
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202 - 195 BC |
Liu Bang |
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195 - 180 BC |
Empress Lü |
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194 BC |
Korean Old Chosen
rebels against
Chinese rule and regains independence as
Wiman Chosen. |
195 - 187 BC |
Hui Ti |
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187 - 179 BC |
Lu Hou |
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179 - 156 BC |
Wên Ti |
Son of Liu Bang. |
156 - 140 BC |
Ching Ti |
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140 - 87 BC |
Wu Di / Wu Ti |
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c.140 - 130 BC |
Following a long migration from the Chinese border in about 165 BC, the Tocharians/Yuezhi
follow the Scythians in invading
Bactria.
The Yuezhi are later united under one of their tribes, the
Kushans, to
form an empire which stretches into
India. |
126 BC |
The name Daxia is used by the explorer Zhang Qian to designate
Bactria. |
111 BC |
The Chieu
rulers of Nam Viet are defeated and conquered by China, and only re-emerge
in AD 544. |
90s BC |
The
nomadic Yancai
are recorded by Sima Qian, centred on the northern shore of the Aral Sea.
Their territory lays to the north-west of the Kangju nomadic federation, to
whom they hold some similarities in terms of customs. |
86 - 73 BC |
Chao Ti |
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73 - 48 BC |
Hsüan Ti |
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48 - 32 BC |
Yuan Ti |
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32 - 6 BC |
Ch'eng Ti |
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6 BC - AD 1 |
Ai Ti |
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AD 1 |
P'ing Ti |
Eight year-old. |
1 - 5 |
Wang Mang |
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5 - 9 |
Ju-tzu |
Child. |
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Hsin / Xin (New) Dynasty
AD 9 - 23 |
9 - 23 |
Wang Mang |
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Later Han (Eastern) Restoration
AD 23 - 220 |
23 - 55 |
Guang wu di /
Kuang-wu Ti |
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55 - 76 |
Ming Ti |
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61 - 67 |
Kashyapa Matanga introduces Buddhism to China. |
76 - 89 |
Chang Ti |
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89 - 106 |
Ho Ti |
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c.90 - 112 |
The Kushan
emperor, Kadphises II, expands the borders of his empire up to the limits of
Chinese influence, and even sends ambassadors to the imperial court. |
106 - 107 |
Shang Ti |
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107 - 126 |
An Ti |
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c.125 |
By
now, in Chinese records, the Yancai have become the
Alanliao
(or the 'old Yancai') and have expanded towards the Caspian Sea. They appear
to remain dependent upon the Kangju. |
126 - 145 |
Shun Ti |
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c.132 |
The successor to the
Kushan throne, Kanishka, is
apparently killed by his own soldiers during one of his military expeditions
to China. |
145 - 146 |
Ch'ung Ti |
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146 - 147 |
Chih Ti |
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147 - 168 |
Huan Ti |
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168 - 189 |
Lingdi / Ling Ti |
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189 - 220 |
Xiandi / Hsien Ti |
Puppet. Period of anarchy. |
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Warlords of the Three Kingdoms
AD 220 - 265 |
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Minor Han (Shu Han) Dynasty
AD 221 - 265 |
220 - 223 |
Cao Pei / Chao-lieh
Ti (Wei Dyn) |
Wei King. |
223 - 263 |
Hou Chu |
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263 |
The Shu kingdom is subjugated. |
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Wei Dynasty
AD 220 - 265
Travellers to Japan under the Wei Dynasty
reported on its early development as a kingdom. |
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c.168 - 207 |
A Chinese chronicle known as Sanguozhi records that
the
Kushan king, Vasudeva I sends a
tribute to Cao Rui of Wei. The vacuum created by the Chinese retreat in
Central Asia is apparently filled by Vasudeva. |
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244 |
The
Wei capture the capital of Korean
Koguryo. |
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c.240s - 250s |
The
Alans are
no longer dependent upon the Kangju, as recorded by the Weilüe
history of the Wei dynasty. |
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Wu Dynasty
AD 220 - 258 |
265 - 589 |
China is split into
North and South kingdoms. |
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Sui Dynasty
AD 590 - 617 |
590 - 604 |
Yang Jian / Chien(Wen Ti) |
Usurper General. |
603 |
The Early Li Dynasty of
Nam Viet
is conquered, and remains under Chinese control until 939. |
604 - 617 |
Yangdi / Yang Kuang |
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612 |
The
Korean state of
Koguryo is invaded,
but the Chinese are defeated. |
617 |
Kung Ti |
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Tang / T'ang Dynasty
AD 617 - 689 |
617 - 626 |
Li Yuan (Gaozu / Kao Tsu) |
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626 - 649 |
Taizong (T'ai Tsung / Li Shih-min) |
|
630 - 700 |
The legendary life of Ti Jen-chieh (Di Renjie), or Judge Dee.
Nestorian missionaries arrive in Ch'ang-an in 635.
The conquest of the Tarim Basin takes place in 645. |
645 - 647 |
An
attempt to occupy Korean
Koguryo
fails. |
647 |
The emperor sends an emissary to the Indian
kingdom of Thaneshwar
expecting it to meet Harsha Vardhana, but finding a usurper, Arjuna, on the
throne. |
649 - 683 |
Gaozong / Kao Tsung |
|
659 - 665 |
Transoxania (above
and east of Persia) is occupied. |
660 |
The
Korean kingdom of
Paekche is conquered. |
668 - 676 |
Korean Silla is occupied.
Koguryo falls. |
683 - 689 |
Chung Tsung |
Son of Kao Tsung. |
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Chou / Zhou Dynasty
AD 689 - 705 |
689 - 705 |
Empress Wu Zhao |
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Wei Dynasty
AD 705 - 710 |
705 - 710 |
? |
Name unknown. |
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Tang Dynasty Restoration
AD 710 - 906 |
710 |
Chung Tsun |
Restored. |
710 - 712 |
Jui Tsung |
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712 - 756 |
Hsuan Tsung / Xuanzong |
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751 |
The battle of Talas.
Arabs defeat
the Chinese under Kao Hsien-chih,
but advance no further into Central Asia. |
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Greater Yen Dynasty
AD 756 - 761 |
|
756 - 757 |
General An Lushan |
Usurper rebel. |
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757 |
? |
Son. |
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Tang Dynasty Continued |
756 - 762 |
Su Tsung |
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763 |
The Chinese lose the Tarim Basin to the Tibetans. |
762 - 780 |
Daizong / T'ai Tsung |
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780 - 805 |
Tê Tsung |
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805 - 806 |
Shun Tsung |
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806 - 821 |
Hsien Tsung |
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821 - 825 |
Mu Tsung |
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825 - 827 |
Ching Tsung |
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827 - 841 |
Wen Tsung |
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841 - 847 |
Wu Tsung |
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847 - 860 |
Hsüan Tsung |
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860 - 874 |
Yi Tsung |
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874 - 889 |
Hsi Tsung |
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889 - 904 |
Chao Tsung |
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904 - 906 |
Chao-hsüan Ti |
|
907 - 1227 |
Tartar tribes
encroach on China's borders and found several of their own dynasties, ruling areas of
China itself. This leads to much instability within Chinese China, and a period of civil
war. |
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Liao (Khitan) Tartar Dynasty
AD 907 - 1125
The Liao empire was located largely in northern China and eastern Mongolia. |
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1125 |
The Liao are displaced by the
Kin/Chin
and retreat into Central Asia where they form a short-lived empire, the
Qara-Khitai. Their departure
allows the Khamag Mongols to
begin to play a more pivotal role on the Mongolian plains. |
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Civil War Period of the Five Dynasties
AD 907 - 960 |
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1. Liang (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 907 - 923 |
907 - 915 |
T'ai Tau |
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915 - 923 |
Mo Ti |
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2. T'ang (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 923 - 936 |
923 - 926 |
Chuang Tsung |
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926 - 934 |
Ming Tsung |
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934 - 936 |
Min Ti |
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3. Tsin / Jin (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 936 - 947 |
936 - 943 |
Kao Tsu |
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939 |
Nam Viet
briefly reasserts its independence with the founding of the
Ngo Dynasty. |
943 - 947 |
Ch'u Ti |
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4. Han (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 947 - 951 |
947 - 951 |
Kao Tsu |
Same as Tsin ruler? |
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5. Chou / Zhou (Posterior) Dynasty
AD 951 - 960 |
951 - 954 |
T'ai Tsu |
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954 - 960 |
Shih Tsung |
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Sung / Song (Northern) Dynasty
AD 960 - 1127 |
960 |
Chao Kuang-yin |
Re-imposed unity. |
960 - 976 |
T'ai Tsu |
|
965 - 968 |
Nam Viet is
briefly controlled by China. |
976 - 998 |
T'ai Tsung |
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981 |
An
attempted invasion of
Nam Viet
is repulsed. |
998 - 1023 |
Chên Tsung |
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1023 - 1064 |
Jên Tsung |
|
1064 - 1068 |
Ying Tsung |
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1068 - 1086 |
Shên Tsung |
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1086 - 1101 |
Chê Tsung |
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1101 - 1126 |
Hui Tsung |
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1126 - 1127 |
Ch'in Tsung |
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1127 |
Displaced by the
Kin / Chin. |
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Hsi-Hsia / Xi Xia (Western Xia / Tangut) Tartar State
AD 990 - (1032) -1227 |
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1209 - 1210 |
The Mongols
under Chingiz Khan campaign against the Hsi-Hsia, forcing the payment of
tribute to placate them. As the Mongol camp has been flooded, they accept. |
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1226 - 1227 |
Although they had been defeated by the
Mongols in 1210, the Hsi-Hsia
had not been properly subjugated. Now, with the
Jin fighting back against Mongol dominance, they refuse to pay tribute, so the
aging Chingiz Khan conducts one final campaign against them, overthrowing
them. Their Tarter state is subsumed within the Mongol empire. |
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Kin / Chin / Jin (Jurchen / Nü-Chên) Tartar Dynasty
AD 1115 - 1234
Based in northern China. The Jin dynasty was formed by the Jurchen people.
They lost a large swathe of their territory to
the Mongols in
1211-1216, but were able to survive and even fight back until a final Mongol
campaign swept them away. A century of Jin rule of the steppes was ended and
they became relatively insignificant in the face of Mongol greatness.
Renaming themselves in the seventeenth century, they re-emerged to rule
China as the Manchu. |
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1130 |
The sudden rise to power of the
Mongols is very temporary at
first, but lasts long enough for them to defend their lands from Jin attacks
and force the Jin to pay tribute. |
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1156 |
Ambaghai of the Khamag
Mongols delivers his daughter to the Tartars
in preparation for her wedding to one of their number. The Tartars take him prisoner and
hand him over to the Jin who promptly execute him. The Tartar betrayal prompts Ambaghai's
successor to engage them in a series of battles. |
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1211 - 1216 |
The Jin empire is attacked by the Mongols,
but the initial invasion is foiled when Chingiz Khan is wounded and retires
to Mongolia. In 1213, he divides his army in three, the other two sections
falling under the command of his sons. The Jin empire is devastated by this
three-pronged attack, and its capital at Zhongdu (modern Beijing) is
captured in 1214, while the following year areas of territory to the north
of the Huang He (Yellow River) fall under Mongol control. The Jin move their
capital southwards Kai-feng. |
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1223 |
Following the initial
Mongol victories of 1211-1216, Chingiz Khan had appointed Mukali as his
commander in northern China. Mukali dies in 1223, and the Jin begin a fierce
resurgence against their Mongol enemy. |
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1231 - 1234 |
A large
Mongol army led by Ogedei Khan, with Subedei and Tolui, launch a fresh
campaign against the Jin. After a series of setbacks, the Mongols approach
the Jin capital at Kai-feng in 1234 with 20,000 Song Chinese auxiliaries.
The city is taken and the Jin fall, ending the northern empire and its rule
of the steppes. |
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1373 |
Not content with kicking the
Mongols out of China, the
Ming emperor
begins a military push into Mongolia, albeit unsuccessfully. The Mongol
General Köke Temür defeats 15,000 Ming
soldiers at the River Orkhon. The Mongols recapture Funin and Suijin
districts in Sinhe, Liaoning and Hebei provinces, cutting off the Ming from
Liadong with the help of the Jurchen.
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Liao (Qara-Khitaï) (Western) Tartar Dynasty
AD 1125 - (1141) -1218
After being ousted from China in 1125, the Qara-Khitai ruled the Transoxiana
region from Samarkand. |
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1217 - 1218 |
Conquered by Mongols. |
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Sung / Song (Southern) Dynasty
AD 1127 - 1279 |
1127 - 1163 |
Kao Tsung |
|
1163 - 1190 |
Hsiao Tsung |
|
1190 - 1195 |
Kuang Tsung |
|
1195 - 1225 |
Ning Tsung |
|
1225 - 1265 |
Li Tsung |
|
1252 |
The
invasion of the Sung empire by the
Mongols begins. It
is the last of the three Chinese powers to remain independent and
unconquered to date. Mongke Khan leads the campaign himself, while entrusting a
Middle Eastern campaign to Hulegu. |
1265 - 1275 |
Tu Tsung |
|
1275 - 1276 |
Kung Tsung |
|
1276 - 1278 |
Tuan Tsung |
|
1278 - 1279 |
Ti Ping |
Killed in battle. |
1267 - 1276 |
Hangzhou, the Sung capital in the south, is conquered by the
Mongols. The great
khans now concentrate their rule almost entirely on China itself, forming
the Yuan dynasty to rule a united
China. |
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Yuan (Mongolian) Dynasty
AD 1279 - 1368
The Great Khans of the Mongol
empire took control of China through a series of conquests, the last of these being
the Southern Sung. The
Mongol leader, Temüjin, had been named Chingiz Khan by the Chinese emperor,
before he and his descendants began conquering China. In 1260-1264, the Mongol
empire was engulfed in a civil war between two aspirants for the position of great
khan. Kublai and Ariq-Boke were both elected to the position in 1260 at two separate
'khuriltai', with Kublai basing himself in China and Ariq-Boke at Karakorum. When
Kublai was victorious in 1264, he retained China as his main base, implying (or
perhaps establishing) China as the most important Mongol possession. It was only
a matter of time before China became central to the great khans, and the Mongol
dynasty was christened the Yuan by Kublai Khan in 1279, from which time he was
emperor of the Chinese as well at great khan of the Mongols. |
1267 - 1279 |
The Southern Sung
are conquered and with that the Great Khans of the
Mongols concentrate
their rule almost entirely on China itself. With this, effective control of
a single Mongol empire has ended, with each of the main 'ulus'
(inheritances) now being ruled independently, albeit with nominal control
being exercised by the great Kublai during his lifetime. |
1279 - 1294 |
Qubilai
/ Kublai Khan |
Great Khan. Shih Tsu in 1280. Ruled China from 1279. |
1274 - 1294 |
Venetian trader Marco Polo arrives in Kanbaliq on a visit to the court of
Kublai Khan. He remains in China for seventeen years, and returns to
Venice
after completing a diplomatic mission for the emperor. His voyage, opening
up new sea routes, contributes to a marked decline in the use of the ancient
Silk Road within 150 years of his return home.
Also in 1274, the first
Mongol invasion of
Japan is
defeated through bad weather conditions, with the outnumbered Japanese
facing superior and much more modern forces. The defeat is an unexpected one
for the otherwise near-universally victorious Mongols.
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This illustration of the first Mongol attempt to invade Japan
shows the Mongol fleet being smashed to pieces by the 'divine
wind' that saved the Japanese
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1277 - 1278 |
Burma is
invaded, and a puppet government is installed there. While it is a victory,
it is far from the total conquest and domination that previous great khans
would have expected. |
1281 |
The second
Mongol invasion of
Japan is
again defeated through bad weather conditions. The Mongols suffer around
seventy-five per cent casualties and a clear limit is set on their expansion
in Asia. Japan praises the kamikaze, or 'divine wind', which has saved it
twice from invasion. |
1294 |
With the death of Kublai Khan, the Yuan dynasty
survives under his successor, but the
Mongol empire effectively ceases to
exist. There are no further Khakhans (great khans), and command of the
empire's territory is now permanently divided into four distinct and fully
independent kingdoms: the Golden Horde (made up of the
Blue Horde
and White Horde), the
Il-Khanate,
Mughulistan, and
Yuan China, which incorporates Mongolia and much of southern Siberia, along
with governing Tibet through the institution of the Xuanzheng Yuan, and with
Korea as a tributary
state. Mongolia is governed by the nominated heir to the imperial throne who
resides in Karakorum. |
1294 - 1307 |
Temur Öljeytu Khan |
Grandson via
Crown Prince Zhenjin. Ch'eng Tsung in 1295. |
1295 |
Following his accession, Mahmud Ghazan of the
Il-Khanate
accepts Islam, marking a departure in the politics of
Mongol
Persia. From this point onwards, despite Ghazan maintaining strong links
with the Yuan, the Il-Khanate becomes increasingly Islamicised, turning
away from its Mongol origins. |
1296 |
Temur finds that he has to quell revolts in the mountainous south-west of
the Chinese lands. Tribal chieftains such as the female leader Shejie and
her contemporary, Song Longji, refuse to submit to the Yuan, so a campaign
taking several months has to be undertaken to suppress them. |
1301 |
Thanks to the support of Kaidu of
Mughulistan for
the opposing faction in the
White Horde
dynastic conflict, Buyan has won support both from Great Khan Temur
and Mahmud Ghazan of the
Il-Khanate.
Temur now organises a response against Kaidu, ending with the latter's
defeat at the bloody Battle of the River Zawkhan. Kaidu dies shortly
afterwards. |
1304 |
The
Chaghatayids
under Du'a and Chapar, son of Kaidu, the
Golden Horde
under Toqta, and the
Il-Khanate
under Mahmud Ghazan negotiate peace with Temur Khan so that trade and diplomatic
relations are not harmed by constant bickering and fighting. The Yuan
emperor is also accepted as the nominal overlord of the three junior
Mongol
states. As is customary (but not always observed in recent times), Temur
designates Öljeytu as the new Il-Khan. Soon afterwards, the former allies
Du'a and Chapar fall out over the territory they control within Mughulistan,
so Temur backs the rightful ruler, Du'a, and sends a large army into the
region in 1306, forcing Chapar to surrender. |
1307 - 1311 |
Qayshan Guluk /
Khaisan / Hai-Shan |
Son of Darmabala. Wu Tsung in 1308. |
1308 - 1309 |
The Seljuq sultanate of
Rum collapses and the area is ruled through regional governors by the
Mongols.
In the same year, Qayshan nominates Ch'ungson as the successor
to King Ch'unguyol of the Koryo
kingdom of Korea. In addition, the rebellious Chapar and his key supporters
in Mughulistan
appear before Qayshan to submit to him, ending the threat posed by them to
stability in the empire.
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The Mongols in China, such as this horse archer (a typical
Mongol warrior) gradually became more and more Sinicised
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1311 - 1320 |
Ayurparibhadra
/ Ayurbarwada |
Brother. Jên Tsung in 1312. |
1311 |
Following the death of Qayshan and the succession of Ayurparibhadra,
their mother, Dagi, leads the aggressive Khunggiad faction in the imperial
court to purge it of Qayshan's officials and supporters. Qayshan's son and Ayurparibhadra's
agreed successor, Toq-Temur, is driven out. Under Ayurparibhadra, the Yuan
become increasingly integrated into Chinese culture. |
1320 - 1323 |
Suddhipala Gege'en / Shidebala |
Son. Ying Tsung in
1321. Assassinated. |
1323 |
A promising reign under Suddhipala is cut short when he is
assassinated by the embittered former followers of the late Empress Dagi.
They carry out the act to avoid possible action against them for supporting
Dagi and her (equally late) puppet minister, Temüder. The head of the
assassins is Temüder's son, Tegshi. He offers the throne to Yesun-Temur, and
he accepts, but not until after he has purged the court of Tegshi's faction
to avoid becoming a puppet. |
1323 - 1328 |
Yesun-Temur |
Tai-ting Ti in
1324. |
1328 |
Arigaba Aragibag
/ Ragibagh |
Son. Defeated by his rival. |
1328 |
Arigaba succeeds his father, installed by Yesun-Temur's
Muslim aide, Dawlat Shah. Before that succession can be made official, an
uprising is triggered by nobles who are dissatisfied with Yesun-Temur's
monopolisation of power under a few select and very powerful officials.
Arigaba leads an army against them but their commander, a
Mongolised
Kipchak general named El Temür, defeats them. The capital is seized by El
Temür and Jayaatu Khan while Arigaba disappears, presumably murdered. |
1328 - 1329 |
Jayaatu Khan
/ Jijaghatu Toq-Temur |
Son of Qayshan. Ming Tsung in
1329. |
1328 - 1329 |
During the successful campaign by El Temür and Jayaatu Khan
to capture the imperial
throne, Qoshila Qutuqtu begins his own campaign against them in
Mongolia. He
enters Mongolia from the Tarbagatai region of the Khangai Mountains with
support from the
Chaghatayid khans, Eljigedey and Du'a Temur. The nobles of Mongolia also
support him, so he has himself declared emperor on 27 February at a location
to the north of Karakorum. Jayaatu Khan recognises that he has been defeated
and abdicates. |
1329 |
Khutughtu Khan / Qoshila Qutuqtu |
Wen Tsung? In
1330? Died suddenly. |
1329 |
Ruling as Khutughtu Khan, Qoshila accepts Jayaatu Khan as his
heir and the two meet at a banquet. The new khan is busy filling imperial
positions with his own people so it seems likely that it is El Temür who is
responsible for his unexpected death just four days after the banquet, probably
because he fears losing his own power and influence to other
Mongols and
Chaghatayids
(however, conflicting sources state that the khan's own son, Toghan-Temur,
is responsible). Now
Jayaatu Khan is able to resume his position on the throne after the briefest
of interludes. |
1329 - 1332 |
Jayaatu Khan
/ Jijaghatu Toq-Temur |
Restored as Khutughtu Khan's heir. |
1332 |
Jayaatu Khan's own son and designated heir, Aratnadara,
has already died just just a month after being nominated in 1331. As a
result, Jayaatu nominates Toghan-Temur as his heir. El Temür resists this as
it is Toghan-Temur who is strongly suspected of murdering his father
(lending support to the alternative report for this event in 1329). Instead,
Toghan-Temur's younger brother, Rinchenpal, is nominated, and duly succeeds
upon Jayaatu's death. |
1332 - 1333 |
Rinchenpal Irinchibal
/ Rinchinbal Khan |
Son of Qoshila. Aged 6 at accession. Died 53 days later. |
1333 - 1368 |
Toghan-Temur |
Brother. Shun Ti
in 1333. Fled to Mongolia.
Died in Karakorum. |
1340s |
The Red Turban Army is created as a result of opposition to the faltering, unpopular,
and despotic Mongol
rulers by the followers of the White Lotus sect of Buddhism. Kuo Tsu-hsing
founds the army, named after the red turbans its members wear and the red
banners they carry. The rebellion starts slowly, with Yuan officials being
assaulted, but it blossoms, although overtures towards the Korean
Koryo are repulsed
militarily by Ch'unajong.
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A Mongol warrior defends himself against a Red Turban Army
warrior with his characteristic red headband
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1351 |
When an armed White Lotus rebellion is uncovered and terminated, along with
one of the army's prominant leaders, others come forward to establish the
Red Turban Army. This sparks similar rebellions to the south of the Yangtze
which collectively use the name Southern Red Turbans. |
1356 - 1367 |
One of the more prominent Red Turban Army leaders is Chu Yüan-chang (Zhu
Yuanzhang). He carries out a series of campaigns against his own Red Turban
Army rivals until he is dominant. Then he leads the popular fight against
the Yuan emperor. |
1368 |
The Mongols are expelled
from China by Chu Yüan-chang when he captures Dadu (modern Beijing).
Toghan-Temur flees to Mongolia and dies in Karakorum two years later,
while Chu Yüan-chang seizes the throne and is proclaimed the first
Ming emperor of a reunited China.
This act effectively dissolves the Mongol empire. The surviving khanates, the
Blue Horde,
White
Horde, and Chaghatayids
(the
Il-Khans have already fallen), are now ruled as entirely independent
kingdoms in their own right. The descendents of Kublai Khan and the great
khans continue to rule locally in Mongolia until the seventeenth century,
and are known to China as the
Northern Yuan. |
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Ming (Bright) Dynasty
AD 1368 - 1644
The founder of the Ming dynasty, Chu Yüan-chang, was a key leader in the Red
Turban Army, a rebel military force that was created to oppose the
increasingly unpopular Yuan
dynasty emperors. Once in a position of command, Chu Yüan-chang showed a
level of single-minded ruthlessness in opposing and defeating his rivals for
overall command of the Red Turban Army, before opposing the Yuan emperor
himself. Ultimately, his unifying of the rebels under a single commander led
them to victory when, in 1368, the Yuan were toppled and fled China to
return to Mongolia.
China was back in Chinese hands. |
1368 - 1398 |
T'ai Tsu / Chu Yüan-chang / Taizu |
Ruled most of
southern China from 1366. Hung Wu Era. |
1372 - 1373 |
Not content with kicking the
Mongols out
of China, Chu Yüan-chang begins a military push into Mongolia. Mongol
General Köke Temür, the half-Chinese grandson of a Mongolian prince who had
been known as Wang Baobao during the
Yuan dynasty
days) leads the defence of Mongolia. In 1373 he defeats 15,000 Ming soldiers
at the River Orkhon. The Mongols recapture Funin and Suijin districts in
Sinhe, Liaoning and Hebei provinces, cutting off the Ming from Liadong with
the help of the Jurchen (former rulers of the
Jin dynasty which itself had been
defeated by the Mongols). |
1380 - 1381 |
Chu Yüan-chang invades
Mongolia
again, reaching Karakorum, which is looted. Other Mongol cities are also
attacked and looted, but a further invasion the following year is repulsed.
However, the
Yuan loyalists
who had been holding out in the southern Chinese territory of Yunnan are
finally defeated in the same year. |
1387 - 1388 |
A Mongolian
official in the former north-eastern Chinese province of Liaoyang (now in
Mongolian hands) invades Liaodong. Nahachu envisions a restoration of the
Yuan dynasty in
China, but he and his army of about 200,000, suffering in the midst of a
famine, are persuaded to surrender by
Ming diplomacy. |
1390s |
The third grouping of Mongols,
the Uriyangkhai, surrender to the Ming, along with some Borjigin princes.
Led by Ukshal Khan's former minister, Necelai, the Mongols are divided by
the Ming into three sub-groups, known as the Three Guards: Doyin, Fuyu, and
Tai'nin. They are settled as a buffer force in territory that becomes the
modern Inner Mongolia. Necelai is killed by Shirmen, the late Mongol khan's
chingsang who is now allied to Jorightu Khan. |
1398 - 1402 |
Civil War between
rival claimants. |
1398 - 1402 |
Hui Ti |
Chien-wen Era. |
1402 - 1425 |
Ch'eng Tsu |
Yung-Lo Era. |
1402 - 1425 |
Ch'eng Tsu moves the capital from Nanking (Nan-ching / Nanjing) to Peking
(Pei-ching / Beijing). |
1407 - 1428 |
Nam Viet is
occupied by China. |
1409 - 1422 |
Ch'eng Tsu invades
Mongolian
lands three times in this period, in 1409, 1414, and 1422. The first time he
is repulsed by Öljei Temür Khan, while the Oirats successfully defend Mongolia
on the other occasions, showing that the Mongols are still powerful enough
to ably defend themselves against Chinese aggression. Continually foiled on
the battlefield, the emperor begins a policy of politically dividing the
Mongols by conspiring to encourage internecine feuding. |
1415 |
The Mongols
under Delbeg are defeated in a phyrric victory for the Ming in which nothing
is really gained. Despite penetrating as far as the River Tuul, the Ming subsequently
withdraw. |
1425 - 1426 |
Jen Tsung |
Hung-hsi Era. |
1426 - 1436 |
Hsüan Tsung |
Hsuan-te Era. |
1436 - 1450 |
Ying Tsung |
Cheng-T'ung Era. |
1449 |
The Mongol
warlord, Esen Tayisi, has been leading diplomatic attempts to negotiate
with Emperor Ying Tsung to improve trading conditions with China. Finding
that he has been rebuffed, Esen Tayisi leads a startling military campaign
which defeats a force of 50,000 Chinese, captures the emperor and besieges
Beijing.
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Ming artillery was no defence against the campaign conducted by
Mongol Esen Tayisi
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1450 - 1457 |
T'ai Tsung / Ching Ti |
Ching-t'ai Era. |
1457 - 1465 |
Ying Tsung |
Restored. T'ien-shun
Era. |
1465 - 1488 |
Hsien Tsung |
Ch'eng-hua Era. |
1488 - 1506 |
Hsiao Tsung |
Hung-chih Era. |
1506 - 1522 |
Wu Tsung |
Cheng-te Era. |
1522 - 1567 |
Shih Tsung |
Chia-tsing Era. |
1535 - 1557 |
The
Portuguese are allowed to begin trading at Macau in 1535, and by 1557
they are able to establish a permanent base. |
1547 - 1551 |
The Mongol
ruler, Daraisung Guden Khan, is unable to quash the growing power and
arrogance of Altan Khan of the Tümet Mongol subgroup. Altan Khan forces
Daraisung to flee eastwards, and the two only come to a compromise in 1551.
Altan accepts Daraisung's suzerainty in return for being granted the title 'Geegen
Khan' for himself. The more senior khan has to relocate his capital to a
location near Manchuria, and his distance from the heartland of Mongol
territory engenders a further decline in the authority of his position. |
1567 - 1573 |
Mu Tsung / Chu
Tsai-hou |
Lung-ch'ing Era. |
1573 - 1620 |
Shên Tsung / Chu
I-chun |
Wan-Li Era. |
1620 - 1621 |
Kuang Tsung / Chu
Ch'ang-lo |
T'ai-ch'ang Era. |
1621 - 1628 |
Hsi Tsung |
T'ien-ch'i Era. |
1628 - 1644 |
Szu (Kuang) Tsung /
Chu Yu-chien |
Hanged himself upon
Manchu approach. Ch'ung-chen Era. |
1634 |
Legdan Hutuhtu Khan is the last of the Borjigin khans, ruling from Chahar.
He has been unpopular and has treated his fellow
Mongols
harshly, while pursuing an alliance with the Ming. Two of the Mongol
subgroups under his direct rule, the Jarud and Khorchin, have been
intermarrying with the Manchu,
and the khan's court has lost most of its authority to them.
Legdan's death signals the end of the khanship that has descended directly
from Chingiz Khan and a virtual surrendering of Inner Mongolia to the
Manchu. |
1644 |
Pei-ching
is occupied by rebels, the emperor commits suicide, and the rebels are thrown
out by Manchuria. A Manchurian occupation begins in the north, while an
independent remnant of the
Ming briefly survives in the south. |
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Ming (Southern) Dynasty
AD 1644 - 1662 |
1644 - 1645 |
Fu Wang, Prince of Fu
/ Chu Yu-sung |
Hung-kuang Era. |
1645 - 1646 |
Tang Wang / Chu
Yü-chien |
Lung-wu Era. |
1646 - 1662 |
Yung-ming Wang / Chu
Yu-lang |
Yung-li Era. |
1662 |
The emperor is captured in
Burma
in 1661, and executed by Manchus
in 1662. |
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Manchu Ch'ing / Qin (Clear) Dynasty
AD 1644 - 1911
The Manchu were a Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria
(modern north-eastern China). They adopted the Manchu name in the
seventeenth century, having previously been known as the Jurchen, rulers of
the Jin dynasty of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries. In 1634 they conquered the weakening Chahar
Mongols,
securing Inner Mongolia. |
1644 - 1662 |
Shih Tsu |
No Era. |
1662 - 1723 |
Shêng Tsu |
K'ang-Hsi Era. |
1723 - 1736 |
Shih Tsung |
Yung-chêng Era. |
1736 - 1796 |
Kao Tsung |
Ch'ien-Lung Era. |
1771 |
The division of the
Mongolian
Koshut tribe of Oirats which had migrated to the Volga in the seventeenth
century now returns to Zungaria where they are resettled by the Ching and
survive into modern times. |
1792 |
Nepalese
expansion is halted by defeat at the hands of the Chinese in Tibet. |
1796 - 1821 |
Jên Tsung |
Chia-ch'ing Era. |
1821 - 1851 |
Hsüan Tsung |
Tao-kuang Era. |
1851 - 1862 |
Wen Tsung |
Hsien-fêng Era. |
1860 |
British troops occupy Beijing, effectively ending the Second Opium War
and humiliating the Ching dynasty. The Taiping rebels operating from their
capital cities of Nanking and Suzhou capture large areas of imperial China,
claiming fully half of it by 1861.The corrupt and ineffective imperial army
is in full retreat on all fronts. Desperate to protect Beijing, the Ching
minister of war, Lord Di, accepts any and all volunteers, bandits and
beggars into the ragtag Ching army. It is a bandit band of 800 men that
forms the Shan Army, a force that is led by General Pang Qing-Yun that will
turn the tide of the war. |
1862 - 1908 |
Tz'u Hsi (Cixi) the
Empress Dowager |
No Era. |
1862 - 1875 |
|
Mu Tsung |
T'ung-chih Era. |
1870 |
After successfully taking Suzhou and then Nanking to end the Taiping
rebellion, on 8 April 1870 General Pang Qing-Yun is assassinated on the way
to his inauguration as governor of Nanking. General Pang's murder remains
one of the Ching dynasty's unsolved crimes (the main events of the rebellion
and the murder are depicted in the Jet Li feature film, The Warlords,
2008). |
1875 - 1909 |
|
Tê Tsung |
Kuang-hsu Era. |
1908 |
On 18 June, Empress Dowager Cixi orders the killing of all foreigners in
China, in support of the Boxer Rebellion. |
1909 - 1911 |
Mo Ti (Pu Yi) |
Hsuan-t'ung Era. |
1911 |
The last Chinese emperor is deposed by republicans. |
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1949 |
The republic of China is conquered by the communist forces of Mao Tse Tung.
The New Republic of China is declared on Taiwan by the exiled General Chiang
Kai Chek. |
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1950 - 1953 |
After
several years of increasingly hostile small scale actions along the
thirty-eighth parallel,
North Korea's
forces attack South
Korea on 25 June 1950. North Korean troops sweep south, capturing most
of the country, but an allied army pushes the North Koreans back to the
Manchurian border. This prompts Communist China to intervene, pouring troops
across the frontier and taking Korea as far south as Seoul. By 1951 the
allies have stabilised a front line around the thirty-eighth parallel and
the remainder of the Korean War consists of heavy fighting in this region,
until a ceasefire is agreed in July 1953. |
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1962 |
A land dispute with India
leads to a Chinese invasion of the country's border territories. Indian
troops face a humiliating defeat. |
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1999 |
The
Portuguese colony of Macau is handed back to China on 20 December. The
enclave is guaranteed a high degree of continued autonomy until 2049 at the
earliest, maintaining everything except defence and foreign affairs for
itself. |
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2010 |
China, a long-term ally of Pakistan, announces that it will set up nuclear
stations in the country similar to those of the
India-US
civilian nuclear deal amidst international condemnation considering
Pakistan's nuclear proliferation record. |
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