African Kingdoms

Africa Proconsularis (Roman Empire) (North Africa)
40 BC - AD 439
Incorporating Colonia Junonia (122 BC), Province of Africa (146-49 BC), Africa Vetus (49-25 BC), Africa Proconsularis (25 BC-AD 293), & Diocese of Africa (293-439)

Rome Aquitani Tribes Canaanite States Celtic Tribes Classical Colonies Germanic Tribes Iberian Tribes Mesopotamian States Syrian States

Beginning in the twelfth century BC, the Phoenicians quickly prospered in their fertile coastal home in the Levant. They created a great trading empire which stretched across the Mediterranean, but the conquest of the homeland in the seventh century BC by Assyria forced many of the colonies to develop into self-governing city states of their own.

Phoenician colonisation of ancient North Africa became more intense with the establishment of Carthage as an ancient 'North African Colony' on the modern Tunisian coast in the late ninth century BC. Once there, they received presents and greetings from nearby Utica, but the increased Phoenician concentration in the western Mediterranean caused intense competition there.

At first that competition was with Greeks who had founded their own colonies along the northern Mediterranean. Centuries later, it was with emergent Rome, which sacked Carthage in the mid-second century BC and took control of the North African coast. The region was reorganised into a Roman province.

Having been a Roman ally since the start of the Third Punic War, the city state of Utica was the initial capital of this new province, charged with being Rome's key supplier of Punic trade. The 'Province of Africa' was established there in 146 BC, to be replaced by Africa Vetus ('Old Africa') in or about 49 BC to compliment the newly-founded Africa Nova in eastern Numidia.

Utica's main harbour soon proved problematical as it suffered from an unrelenting build-up of silt which was washed down from the mountains. In time the harbour was rendered useless and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage. The city had already been the capital of Colonia Junonia (122 BC). The colonia failed due to Roman superstition about the destroyed Carthage site and intense dislike in general for all things Carthage.

Principal author(s): Page created: Page last updated:

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Geography, Strabo, the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, William Smith, from the Life of Apollonius of Tyana, from The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Volume III: AD 527-641, John R Martindale, A H M Jones, & John Morris (Cambridge University Press, 1992), from Unger's Bible Dictionary, Merrill F Unger (1957), from Easton's Bible Dictionary, Matthew George Easton (1897), from The Cambridge Ancient History, John Boardman, N G L Hammond, D M Lewis, & M Ostwald (Eds), from The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium: Niketas, Walter Emil Kaegi (Alexander P Kazhdan, Ed, Oxford University Press, 1991), from The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, T R S Broughton (American Philological Association, Vol 1 1951 & 1986, and Vol 2 1952), and from External Links: Encyclopaedia Britannica, and Carthage (Ancient History Encyclopaedia), and If it wasn't for a plague, Jonathan Kennedy (The Guardian), and Roman Realities, Finley Hooper (Wayne State University Press, 1979, and available via Internet Archive).)

146 - 122 BC

During this period the site of the city of Carthage remains little more than a scattering of ruins. The region is governed from Utica. The fall of Carthage is described by Polybius, with Roman soldiers 'being ordered to come against the inhabitants of the city with orders to kill all they encountered, sparing none, and not to start pillaging until the signal was given. They do this, I think, to inspire terror...'

Roman Carthage, when it was finally constructed over the ashes of the original city, was of course bigger and better and even more grand than the original city had been

146 BC

General who conquered Carthage.

146 BC

With the threat of Mediterranean opposition from Carthage now ended forever, its former coastal land empire is reorganised into the Roman 'Province of Africa' (with governors below shown with a green shaded background).

122 - 40 BC

A Roman tribune by the name of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus founds a colonia on the site of Carthage: the Colonia Junonia. The project fails as general Roman sentiment against the ancient enemy state is still too strong, and political manoeuvring against Gracchus blocks the scheme. The site of the former city of Carthage is again abandoned and the region remains governed from Utica.

146 - 111 BC

Unknown governors of Africa in Utica.

111 BC

Consul. Arrested for corruption.

110 - 109 BC

Consul. Continued war against Jugurtha of Numidia. Condemned.

110 - 109 BC

Brother and deputy governor. Defeated.

109 - 107 BC

Led Roman forces in Jugurthine War.

107 - 105 BC

Defeated Jugurtha of Numidia.

107 - 105 BC

Despite having attempted to undermine Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus during his own command of Roman forces during the Jugurthine War, Gaius Marius succeeds him in Africa.

An illustration depicting the Teutones wandering in Gaul, part of a large-scale migration from modern Denmark into northern Italy in the second century BC

Not only does he manage to end the war which has rumbled on for years (in 106 BC, aided by Sulla, below)), he also goes on to manage the Roman response to the migration of Cimbri and Teutones following a Roman disaster at the Battle of Arausio in 105 BC.

105 BC

Deputy governor.

105 - 88 BC

Unknown governors of Africa in Utica.

90s - 31 BC

Governors are uncertain for the duration of Rome's civil war, the dictatorship of Sulla, the Sertorian War, the Third Servile War, the campaigns of Julius Caesar, and the resultant triumvirates. Some names may not be governors at all, instead being military commanders who may or may not hold supreme regional authority.

96 - 95 BC

Governor of Africa province.

96 - 75 BC

Cyrene becomes part of the Roman republic in 96 BC, and in 75 BC is made a province of Rome. Also in 96 BC (and not 92 BC as is sometimes stated), Rome and Parthia meet on the Euphrates.

The period between Greek, Egyptian, and Roman domination of Libya left behind a rich heritage of ruins and remains, including this gladiator mosaic now at the museum in Tripoli

91 - 89 BC

The Etruscans, Frentani, Hirpini, Iapyges, Lucani, Marrucini, Marsi, Paeligni, Picentes, Samnites, Umbri, and Vestini fight against Rome in the Social War (also variously known as the Italian War, or Marsic War). The Latins and Umbri play only a minor role in the war, joining the rebels late and agreeing terms with Rome early on.

89 - 82 BC

Civil war explodes in Italy between the supporters and forces of Sulla and Gaius Marius. The latter is supported by the Etruscans. Athens takes the opportunity to rebel against Roman control and Sulla is forced to crush the rebelling Greeks.

88 - 87 BC

Governor of Africa during the civil war.

86 - 84 BC

Governor. Returned 47 BC.

84 - 82 BC

Governor of Africa province.

82 - 79 BC

General, commanding in Africa province.

80 - 72 BC

The Sertorian War in Iberia causes the Celts of Mediterranean Gaul to be subjected to troop levies and forced requisitions in order to support the military efforts of Metellus Pius, Pompeius, and other Roman commanders against the rebels.

The 'Hand of Irulegi' was discovered by archaeologists in 2021 in the burned-out ruins of a pre-Roman Basque village in Iberia which had been destroyed during the Sertorian War (80-72 BC)

79 - 77 BC

Unknown governors of Africa in Utica.

77 - 76/75 BC

Governor of Africa province.

76/75 - 70/69 BC

Unknown governors of Africa in Utica.

73 - 71 BC

A slave named Spartacus, a former chieftain of the Maedi tribe of Thracians, leads a slave revolt in southern Italy. Aided by the Celts, Castus, Crixus, Gannicus, and Oenomaus, his numbers are swelled by more and more slaves joining his forces in what is known as the Third Servile War.

69 BC

Possibly in office before 69 BC.

69 - 67 BC

Unknown governors of Africa in Utica.

67 - 66 BC

Governor of Africa province.

66 - 62 BC

Unknown governors of Africa in Utica.

62 - 60/59 BC

Governor of Africa province.

58 - 57 BC

Governor of Africa province.

58 BC

The Gallic Wars of Julius Caesar begin when he becomes governor of Gaul. Over the course of the next decade or so he conquers all of the Gaulish tribes and agrees peaceful terms with the Cotti Regnum.

The impressive, immaculately-restored triumphal Arch of Augustus sits just outside the centre of the modern town of Susa, a town which has its origins in the Segusini tribal oppidum of Segusio within the Cotti Regnum

56 BC

Governor of Africa province.

56 - 53/52 BC

Unknown governors of Africa in Utica.

52 BC

Possibly in office before 52 BC.

52 BC

While Caesar is tied down in Rome, the Gauls begin their revolt, resolving to die in freedom rather than be suppressed by the invaders. A scorched earth policy is adopted, and more than twenty towns of the Bituriges are burned in one day.

51 - 50 BC

Governor of Africa province.

49 BC

Possibly did not take up position.

49 - 27 BC

A new city of Colonia Junonia, is built on the site of the devastated Carthage by Julius Caesar, although construction of it has to be completed after his death in 44 BC. The region's ability to serve as the breadbasket of Rome - the initial cause of its success in the first place - ensures its survival.

The city of Carthage existed in its original glory for at least four hundred and twenty-eight years before it was destroyed by the Romans - and possibly another two centuries before that as a developing colony which was founded by Phoenicians

49 BC

Within five years of Caesar's death the refounded city of Carthage is made the capital of a new Roman province of Africa Vetus (to compliment the Africa Nova of eastern Numidia). Governors of Africa Vetus are shown with a blue background.

49 - 48 BC

Former governor (52 BC), seized Africa Vetus.

47 BC

Governor, primarily in (new) Carthage. See 84 BC.

47 BC

Joint governor of Africa Vetus, focussed on Utica.

46 BC

Governor, Africa Vetus (Old Africa).

46 - 40 BC

Eastern Numidia is annexed to create the new Roman province of Africa Nova. Western Numidia is also merged into Africa Nova in 40 BC, following the death of its last king, Arabio. Africa Vetus ('Old Africa') remains governed from Utica.

45 - 44 BC

Caesar in 45 BC is appointed dictator of Rome for life, much to the consternation of many members of the senate who see his increasing authority as a bid for kingship of Rome, something which most Romans would abhor. Assassination follows in 44 BC.

Having surrendered with honour to Caesar in 52 BC, Vercingetorix remained a potent symbol of resistance to Roman domination, so his murder in 46 BC dealt a terminal blow to hopes of renewed Gaulish freedom

45 - 44 BC

Governor, Africa Vetus (Old Africa).

45 BC

Governor, Africa Nova (New Africa). Historian.

44 - 42 BC

Governor, Africa Vetus (Old Africa).

44 - 40 BC

Governor, Africa Nova (New Africa).

41 BC

Governor, Africa Vetus (Old Africa).

40 - 36 BC

Governor, Africa Vetus (Old Africa).

35 BC

Governor, Africa Vetus (Old Africa).

c.35 (32?) BC

The provinces of Africa Vetus and Africa Nova are merged, seemingly due to border disputes which erupt during Rome's second triumvirate. Firm details seem unavailable.

34 - 32 BC

Governor, Africa.

32 - 29 BC

Name(s) unknown.

29/28 BC

Governor, Africa.

28 - 25 BC

Name(s) unknown.

27 BC

Caesar Augustus (Octavian) becomes a tribune and consular imperium in Rome, and the Roman empire is born even though it takes time for the concept to be accepted.

During his long 'reign' as Rome's first citizen, Octavian brought peace to the city and oversaw its transition from failing republic to vigorous and expanding empire

25 BC

The province of Africa Nova excepting western Numidia is united with the province of Africa Vetus ('Old Africa') by Emperor Augustus to create the new province of Africa Proconsularis.

25 BC

First governor of Africa Proconsularis.

24 - c.21 BC

Name(s) unknown.

c.21/20 BC?

Governor.

20/19 BC

Governor.

19 - 14 BC

Name(s) unknown.

14/13 BC

Governor.

13/12 BC

Governor.

12 - 9/8 BC

Name(s) unknown.

8/7 BC

Governor.

7/6 BC

Governor.

6/5 BC

Governor.

4 - 3 BC

Name(s) unknown.

c.3 BC

Former consul. Later in Hispania (AD 9 or 10).

3 BC - AD 4

Name(s) unknown.

AD 1

The threat of conflict between Rome and Parthia has been building over the question of Armenia. As a result the Romans build up a large military force in Syria.

This scene from the Parthian War comes from Ephesos and shows a Roman warrior in typical heroic stance about to strike down his defeated Parthian opponent - all good propaganda for the Roman war effort, of course

c.AD 4

Governor.

c.4/5

Governor.

c.5/6

Governor.

c.6 - 8

Name(s) unknown.

c.8

Governor.

c.8 - 12

Name(s) unknown.

12 - 15

Governor.

14

The death of Caesar Augustus in Rome is the occasion for the Res Gestae Divi Augusti ('The Deeds of the Divine Augustus') funerary inscription to be read. The document is a form of obituary, recounting the emperor's deeds to his mourning subjects.

Tiberius was probably a reluctant emperor who was manoeuvred into the role by the machinations of his mother, Livia, and in his later days he shunned many of his duties

15 - 16

Governor.

16 - 17

Governor.

17 - 18

Governor.

18 - 21

Governor.

21 - 23

Governor.

23 - 24

Governor.

24 - 26

Name(s) unknown.

26 - 29

Governor.

29 - 35

Governor.

35 - 36

Governor.

36 - 37

Governor.

37 - 38

Name(s) unknown.

38 - 39

Former governor in Hispania (c.AD 25).

39 - 40

Name(s) unknown.

40 - 41

Governor.

41

Early in the year, Caligula's brief and colourful reign is ended in Rome by a plot which is engineered by army officers and senators. He is replaced by the unlikely and unprepared Claudius, whose wife is a member of the Urgulanilla, a noble family which can trace its origins back to the Etruscan city of Caisra.

An Etruscan sarcophagus of a man and his wife from the city of Caisra (modern Cerveteri), which was one of the older cities, having been formed in the late ninth century BC by a melding together of clusters of Villanovan villages

41 - 43

Governor.

43 - 44

Name(s) unknown.

43

Rome invades Britannia and begins the conquest of the island. Under the command of Britain's Governor Aulus Plautius, the invasion force probably consists of four legions of citizen troops, II Augusta, XIV Gemina, XX Valeria Victrix, and IX Hispana.

44 - 46

Later in Hispania. Emperor of Rome (68-69).

46 - 47

Governor.

47 - 51

Name(s) unknown.

51 - 52

Governor.

52 - 53

Governor.

53 - 56

Governor.

56 - 57

Governor.

57 - 58

Governor.

58 - 59

Governor.

59 - 60

Name unknown.

60 - 61

Governor.

61 - 62

Governor.

62 - 63

Governor.

64 - 68

Later emperor of Rome (69-79).

66 - 73

The First Jewish Uprising in Judah leads to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. In 67, the Nabataeans under King Maliku II send an army to aid General (later emperor) Vespasian in the siege.

68

Name unknown.

68

Governor.

68 - 98

Roman records of the names of governors breaks here, during the 'Year of the Four Emperors', the first time the imperial selection system breaks down, causing a period of great disturbance.

Galba seized Rome and the imperial title in AD 68, but immediately faced opposition by other generals who thought that their claim was better, sparking the 'Year of the Four Emperors' in AD 69

69/70

Governor.

71/72

Governor.

72/73

Governor.

74

Governor.

74 - 77/78

Name(s) unknown.

77/78

Governor.

78/79

Governor.

78/79 - 82/83

Name(s) unknown.

82/83

Governor.

83/84

Governor.

84/85

Governor.

85/86

Governor.

85/86 - 91/92

Name(s) unknown.

91/92

Governor.

92/93

Governor.

92/93 - 97/98

Name(s) unknown.

97/98

Governor.

98 - 99

Formerly in Hispania and then Gaul.

98

Writing at this time, Tacitus not only mentions a large number of tribes in Europe, he also describes Ireland. He calls it 'a small country in comparison with Britain'. He goes on to state that he has often heard his father-in-law, General Agricola, 'say that Ireland could be reduced and held by a single legion with a fair force of auxiliaries'.

The tombstone of Tacitus once marked the final resting place of one of Rome's most important authors, who not only chronicled the creation of the empire, but also listed the many barbarian tribes of Europe and the British Isles (External Link: Creative Commons Licence 4.0 Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike International)

99 - 101

Name(s) unknown.

101/102

Governor.

103/104

Governor.

104 - 106?

Name(s) unknown.

106/107

Governor.

108/109

Governor.

110/111

Governor.

112/113

Governor.

113 - 115

Name(s) unknown.

115/116

Governor.

116/117

Governor.

117/118

Governor.

118 - 120

Name(s) unknown.

120/121

Governor.

121

Governor.

121 - 139

Name(s) unknown.

132

The Second Jewish Uprising in Judah is led by Simon Bar Kochba against Roman rule. He captures Jerusalem and establishes a short-lived independent state which is destroyed by Rome, along with much of Jerusalem itself.

The bloody Second Jewish Uprising witnessed brutality on both sides, so much so that the victorious Emperor Hadrian did not declare a triumph upon his eventual return to Rome

139 - 140

Personal name unknown. Lucius of 121?

140 - 141

Governor.

141 - 142

Governor.

142 - 143

Governor.

143 - ?

Name(s) unknown.

Personal name unknown.

? - 153

Name(s) unknown.

153 - c.154

Governor.

c.154 - c.155

Family names unknown.

c.155 - c.157

Family names unknown.

c.157 - 158

Governor.

158 - 160

Personal name unknown.

160 - 161

Personal name unknown.

161 - 162

Governor.

162 - 163

Governor.

163 - 164

Governor.

164

Governor.

164 - 165

Governor.

165

Plague enters Rome from the east, brought back by returning legionaries. It quickly spreads throughout the empire and is generally known as the Antonine Plague, although the 'Plague of Galen', who describes its spread, is sometimes used.

Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius had concentrated on defining the Roman empire's borders, defending the territory they had. That would have included building watch towers along the limes in the Danube region which the Marcomanni managed to break through

The total death toll may reach five million, with as many as two thousand a day dying in Rome at its height. It may be the reason for the early death of Lucius Verus in 169, and it drastically weakens the army.

Probably not coincidentally, accurate Roman records of governors of Africa Proconsularis largely end here aside from a sprinkling of names, although the post still exists and remains in place for the remaining life of the empire in North Africa.

165 - c.167

Name(s) unknown.

c.167 - 168

Formerly in Hispania (c.161-164). Died c.169.

168/169

Governor.

169/170

Governor.

165 - ?

Name(s) unknown.

170 - c.173

Governor.

c.173 - 174

Formerly in Hispania (c.170-172).

174 - 175

Governor.

175 - 178

Name(s) unknown.

178 - 180

Governor for a year within this window.

c.180

Governor.

180/181

Governor.

183 - 185

Governor for a year within this window.

185 - 188

Name(s) unknown.

188/189

Governor. Dates uncertain.

189/190

Governor. Dates uncertain.

c.190?

Governor. Perhaps as early as 185, and for about a year.

190/191

Governor. Dates uncertain.

191/192

Governor. Dates uncertain.

192/193

Governor.

193 - 196

Name(s) unknown.

196/197

Governor. Dates uncertain.

198/199

Governor.

200 - 205

Governor for a year within this window.

c.201/202

Governor.

c.202

Governor.

c.203

Governor.

203/204

Governor.

c.205

Governor.

209/210

Governor.

210/211

Governor.

212/213

Governor.

213 - 216

Governor between these dates.

212 - 215

Governor between these dates.

216/217

Governor. Most of name lost.

?

Governor, probably under Septimus Severus.

212? - 220?

Governor between these dates.

213? - 222?

Formerly in Hispania (c.193?-197). In office for 2-3 years.

217

Emperor Caracalla dies a rather mysterious death in Rome while visiting a temple of Luna with only his personal bodyguard, which includes his prefect of the Praetorian guard, Macrinus. Perhaps not coincidentally, Macrinus had recently found his name on one of Caracalla's death lists.

The Machiavellian Septimus Severus continued to increase the glory of Rome (this surviving arch is named after him) but he continued the imperial practice of Christian persecution

213? - 217?

Governor between these dates.

c.220

Governor.

c.221

Governor.

c.230

Governor.

237 - 238

Proclaimed emperor. Committed suicide.

237 - 238

There is widespread discontent at the rule of Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax. This culminates in a revolt in the province of Africa. Gordian is sent along with his son to resolve the problem, and they enter Carthage as proconsuls only to be greeted with popular enthusiasm.

Proclaimed emperor, Gordian I reigns for three weeks from Carthage, sharing power with his son, Gordian II. Both Gordians die when the governor of the neighbouring province of Numidia marches against them and kills Gordan II. His father commits suicide upon hearing the news.

The Colosseum in Rome - also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre - was built from concrete and stone by Emperor Vespasian from AD 72, and was completed in AD 80 under the aegis of his son, Titus - it continued in use as a place of entertainment until the sixth century, after which it was converted into a cemetery (click or tap on image to view full sized)

fl 240

Usurper in Africa. Defeated by the governor of Mauritania.

240

Sabinianus follows Gordian's example and puts in a claim for the imperial throne from Africa. He is defeated by the Roman governor of Mauritania.

fl 240

Governor.

251

The pandemic which is known as the Plague of Cyprian hits Rome and lasts for at least the next two decades. It may be at least partially responsible for the period of political instability and economic disruption which is known as the 'Crisis of the Third Century', and which nearly results in the empire's collapse.

Bishop Cyprian of Carthage gives his name to the pandemic, having described symptoms which include high fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, and bleeding from the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth.

Prior to scientific analysis in 2022, the sole coin bearing the likeness of Emperor Sponsianus of about AD 249 was thought to have been the work of sophisticated eighteenth century fraudsters

Based on this account, a viral haemorrhagic fever is most likely, similar to Ebola. According to one chronicle, at its height the pandemic kills five thousand people a day in the capital, while Alexandria's population is estimated to drop from about five hundred thousand to one hundred and ninety thousand.

257 - 258

Governor.

258 - 259

Governor.

259 - 261

Governor between these dates.

260 - 268

Governor between these dates.

260 - 268

Governor between these dates.

? - 262?

Northern African Roman official, perhaps in Egypt.

262

At a highly unstable time in the empire, Emperor Piso is killed by Emperor Valens, who is later killed by his own troops. In the meantime, Emperor Postumus is gradually pacifying his Imperium Galliarum while Memor of Africa prepares to declare himself Roman emperor there. Before he can do so he is killed by General Theodotus.

Shown here are two sides of a coin which was issued during the reign as emperor of Britannia of Carausius, forced to rebel in the face of charges of colluding with pirates

265 - 268

Governor at an uncertain point in this period.

c.275

Governor.

278

Governor.

283

Governor.

?

Governor.

290 - 294

Governor.

293

The crises of the late third century AD prompt Emperor Diocletian to introduce the 'Tetrarchy', along with various administrative reforms. The province of Africa now becomes the 'Diocese of Africa'. Few vicarii are known, although various of their regional governors are known (although these are not listed here).

The diocese consists of several now-smaller provinces which include Africa Zeugitana in the north (which may more familiarly or even officially be known as Africa Proconsularis - the situation is unclear), Africa Byzacena in the south (roughly similar to today's eastern Tunisia), and Africa Tripolitania to the south and south-east of Africa Byzacena (roughly similar to today's southern Tunisia and north-western Libya).

This ebony market may have been held in Tunis in more recent times but it doubtless mirrors such markets going back through centuries of Islamic and pre-Islamic control of the region

302

Better Roman records which cover the names of governors now begin again although, as with records of governors elsewhere, they remain extremely patchy.

302 - 305

Vicarius.

337

Constantine II emerges from the unsettled period following his father's death as the senior Augustus, controlling Britain, Gaul, and Hispania - the Gallic provinces. Constans controls Africa, Italy and Rome, and the Illyrian provinces, while Constantius II holds Constantinople and most of the east.

338 - 339

Vicarius (deputy). Formerly in Hispania.

372 - 375

The usurpation of Firmus takes place against the Comes Africae, Romanus, who is guilty of accepting bribes in return for protection, He had supported Firmus' illegitimate half-brother when he had tried to seize their late father's wealth.

The First Council of Nicaea, held in Rome in AD 325, decided upon the basic tenants of the Catholic Church, including the contents of the Bible

Firmus, who is the son of a Moorish prince and powerful Roman officer, has the support of native African tribes, He is undefeated against the emperor's magister militum, Theodosius, until he is betrayed by one of his own supporters. He chooses suicide over capture.

395

The formal partition of the empire into the Eastern Roman and Western Roman sections is undertaken by Honorius and Arcadian. An official register of all the offices, other than municipal, which exist in the Roman empire at this time is compiled in the Notitia Dignitatum (see feature link). The province of Africa becomes part of the western empire.

396 - 397

Vicarius.

400 - 401

Vicarius.

415

Praefectus urbi of Rome in 420.

416

A synod is held in Carthage (the Council of Carthage) in the Roman province of Africa which takes a firm line against the Pelagian 'heresy'. Pelagius (circa 354-420/440) is a British ascetic who has allegedly denied the doctrine of original sin and he finds many supporters in Britain, especially amongst the educated classes.

Changes were happening in the empire - Ravenna became an imperial city in 402, and remained Italy's capital under succeeding Gothic, Ostrogothic, and Eastern Roman administrations

439

Roman Carthage and Utica are conquered by the invading Vandali, who form their own powerful kingdom along the North African coast. The Western Roman empire is unable to recapture the vital province.

It takes until the sixth century before General Belisarius can be sent to North Africa with an army by Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian. In one campaigning season and two battles, the Vandali are conquered. Carthage is resurrected as the centre of the 'Prefecture of Africa'.