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European Kingdoms

Iberian Peninsula

 

Roman Iberia (Hispania)
Incorporating Baetica, Carthaginensis, Citerior, Gallaecia, Lusitania, Tarraconensis, & Ulterior

Europe's south-western corner is formed by the peninsula of Iberia. This comprises the modern countries of Portugal and Spain, plus the principality of Andorra and Gibraltar. The peninsula has a history which is filled with conquest and re-conquest, and centuries of struggle.

During the first millennium BC the Castro culture dominated here, while Indo-European Iberia - which was anything but entirely Celtic - was formed through the process of several migratory waves entering the peninsula, mainly via the Pyrenees.

Iberia began to be dominated by Carthage from the sixth and fifth centuries BC. The Carthaginians, though, never conquered the entire peninsula, or even much of it. And then their dominance was ended when power in the Mediterranean switched to republican Rome following the two Punic Wars. A drawn-out period of 'Roman Conquest' of Iberia soon followed.

The Latin-speaking Romans had already come to dominate much of the Italian peninsula and its general population of Italic-speaking peoples. It was Latin speech which eventually became the common language there. In Iberia the 'kw' sound (such as 'qu') was the same as in Latin, making the transition here very easy after Rome's conquest. Thanks to this, even today the Portuguese and Spanish languages are very similar to Italian and their mutual mother, Latin, with all of them being based on, or being closely related to, the Q-Celtic of the Hallstatt culture.

When the Romans took the Iberian peninsula from the Carthaginians and - eventually - managed to subdue its many and varied tribes, they divided it into two provinces. These were Hispania Ulterior (present day Andalusia, Extremadura, southern León, and most of modern Portugal), and Hispania Citerior, or Tarraconensis (all of today's northern, eastern, and south-central Spain, plus the Balearic Islands). The addition of 'Hispania' is not compulsory.

Under Augustus (27 BC to AD 14), imperial Roman Hispania Tarraconensis was further divided into Lusitania (Portugal and part of western Spain) and Baetica (Andalusia and southern Extremadura). Governors of Hispania Citerior/Tarraconensis are shown below with a blue background, while Lusitania's governors are in the left-hand column and Baetica's proconsuls are in the right-hand column. Records for all are incomplete, and fade significantly in the third century AD.

Another reorganisation was carried out by Diocletian in AD 293 when he divided Tarraconensis into Carthaginensis (covering central and south-east Iberia), Gallaecia (in the north-west, domain of the Gallaeci tribes), and a much-reduced Tarraconensis (the north-east corner).

Hispania was significantly Romanised throughout the imperial period, coming to be one of the most important territories in the empire. Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius were all born there, as were the philosopher Séneca, the poet Marcial, and the public speaker, Quintiliano. All of the free people of Hispania were granted Roman citizen status in the third century AD, which would only be cancelled out by the formation of 'Post-Roman Iberia' in AD 409.

Rome's colosseum

(Information by Peter Kessler and Trish Wilson, with additional information from the BBC series, Mary Beard's Ultimate Rome: Empire Without Limit, presented by Mary Beard and first screened between 27 April-18 May 2016, from the Notitia Dignitatum, from Encyclopaedia of the Roman Empire, Matthew Bunson (1994), from Augustan Aristocracy, Ronald Syme (Clarendon Press, 1986), from History of Ancient Rome, Cassius Dio, from the works of 'Florus', from Annales, Tacitus, from Life of Claudius, Suetonius, from Life of Galba, Suetonius, from Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139, Werner Eck (Chiron (Journal), 12, 1982), from Curtailed Tenures of Consular Legates, Ronald Syme (Published in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (Journal of Papyrology and Epigraphy), 59, 1985), from Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter der Antoninen, Géza Alföldy (Rudolf Habelt Verlag, 1977), from Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander, Paul Leunissen (J C Gieben, 1989), and from External Links: Celtiberia.net (in Spanish), and Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa (in Spanish), and A misty history of Roman Portugal (The Portugal News), and Euskomedia (in Spanish), and Encyclopaedia Britannica, and The Roman Military Research Society, and Rome (articles from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th Edition (1875) and 10th Edition (1902)).)

25 - 24 BC

In spring 25 BC the Astures revolt. The Romans are forewarned by the Brigaentin division of Astures and are able to repel the attack. The surviving Astures forces are able to join the Cantabri in the mountains.

Towards the end of the year, after much hardship and loss on both sides, Legate Antistitius finally conquers the important civitas of Aracillum, following a battle inside the associated castro. Rome considers the campaign to be over but hostilities are resumed in 24 BC.

Astures warriors attack Romans
Astures warriors attack Roman troops in this modern illustration which also shows short trousers, an influence from the east, probably via Mesopotamia

24 - 22 BC

Lucius Aelius Lamia

Rome's governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

22 - 19 BC

Gaius Furnius

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Later senator.

19 BC

The finish to the Astures revolt is brought about when the Romans are able to launch a seaborne assault from Gaul. The tribes are treated harshly, with forced deportations, burned crops, slaughtered cattle, and slavery being Rome's preferred options. Even so, rebellions continue until 16 BC and two entire legions have to be stationed there for a further seventy years to ensure the peace.

The Cilurnigos clan of the Astures later form the Ala II Asturum cavalry unit which is stationed at Chesters Roman Fort on Hadrian's Wall in Roman Britannia. The camp there is named Cilurnum after them. The Gigurri tribe provides manpower for the auxiliary cavalry unit which is labelled Ala I Gigurrorum. The Amaci tribal capital of Asturica Amak is renamed Asturica Augusta.

Caesar Augustus
During his long 'reign' as Rome's first citizen, Augustus brought peace to the city and oversaw its transition from failing republic to vigorous and expanding empire

19 - 17 BC

Publius Silius Nerva

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

13 - 9 BC

Marcus Licinius Crassus Frugi

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

c.3 BC

Paullus Fabius Maximus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

AD 9/10

Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso

Former consul. Formerly in Africa. Governor.

13 - 20

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

Lusitania

Baetica

 

19 - 2 BC

Quintus Acutius Faienanus

Governor of Lusitania.

2 BC - AD 14

Quintus Articuleius Regulus

Governor of Lusitania.

20 - 22

Gaius Vibius Serenus

Proconsul of Baetica.

c.25

Lucius Calpurnius Piso

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Later in Africa.

25 - 31

Lucius Arruntius

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

c.37 - 38

Gaius Caetronius Miccio

Proconsul of Baetica. Former consul?

c.37

Gaius Ummidius Durmius Quadratus

Governor of Lusitania. Later in Syria.

early 1st cent

Lucius Caecilius Rufus

Governor of Lusitania. Precise dates unknown.

c.41

Appius Junius Silanus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

41 - 54

During the reign of Emperor Claudius, the territories of Hispania are compartmentalised into different municipalities. Both the Vascones and the Berones are included in the circumscription of Caesarea Augusta (Zaragoza).

Berdún in the territory of the Suessetani
The highly-picturesque hilltop town of Berdún lies between Navarre and Aragon, once within Suessetani territory but taken by the Vascones

43 - 44

Umbonĭus Silĭo

Proconsul of Baetica.

44 - 45

Lucius Calventius Vetus Carminius

Governor of Lusitania. Later in Asia.

c.46

[Marcus?] [Porcius?] Cato

Governor of Lusitania.

58? - 68?

Marcus Salvius Otho Caesar Augustus

Governor of Lusitania. Later Rome's Emperor Otho.

60 - 68

Servius Sulpicius Galba

Governor. Formerly in Africa. Emperor of Rome (68-69).

68

With Nero's Rome slipping into chaos, Caius Julius Vindex, a governor in Gaul, launches a revolt with support from Servius Sulpicius Galba. Vindex soon finds that his levies are no match for legions sent from Germania Superior (IIII Macedonica, XXI Rapax, and XXII Primigenia), under the command of Lucius Verginius Rufus, and supported by ever-reliable Gallic communities such as the Lingones.

Nero loses control in Rome and commits suicide, ending the Julio-Claudian dynasty of emperors. The scene is set for the 'Year of Four Emperors'.

Servius Sulpicius Galba
Galba seized Rome and the imperial title in AD 68, but immediately faced opposition by other generals who thought that their claim was better, sparking the 'Year of the Four Emperors' in AD 69

? - bef 67

Marcus Ulpius Traianus

Proconsul of Baetica. Father of Rome's Trajan.

68 - 69

Cluvius Rufus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

68 - 69

Galba, a former governor of Africa Proconsularis, begins his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies, but he swiftly demonstrates his lack of ability to wield supreme power.

His replacement of key figures leads to a revolt of the legions in Gaul. They accept as their emperor Aulus Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior. When this news reaches Rome, Galba panics and is assassinated. His initial replacement, former governor of Lusitania Marcus Salvius Otho, is quickly removed from the game.

70 - 73

Titus Aurelius Fulvus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

70

With the defeat of Vitellius in Rome, his former supporters join a Lingonian named Julius Sabinus in opposition. Sabinus makes a major mistake, however, when he attacks the Sequani who have remained loyal to Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus).

They repulse his attack and a conference of the Gauls in the land of the Remi leads to a decision to support Rome against the Batavi. Their revolt is quickly suppressed, with some rebels being posted to Britannia (at least four units of five hundred men).

Celts
The Gaulish and Germanic Batavian revolt of AD 69-70 was a major contributor to the instability experienced in the Roman empire during the 'Year of Four Emperors'

70s

Lucius Lucullus

Proconsul of Baetica.

73/74

Lucius Junius Quintus Vibius Crispus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

74 - 78

Marcus Arrecinus Clemens

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

75?- 78?

Gaius Catellius Celer

Governor of Lusitania. Dates uncertain.

78 - 81

Gaius Calpetanus Rantius Q V Festus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

78 - 79

[Marcus?] Sempronius Fuscus

Proconsul of Baetica.

78 - 119

Quintus Acutius Faienanus

Governor of Lusitania.

79 - 80

Gaius Cornelius Gallicanus

Proconsul of Baetica. Later in Gaul.

81? - 85?

Quintus Pomponius Rufus?

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

83 - 84

Lucius Antistius Rusticus

Proconsul of Baetica.

85 - 90

Gaius Catellius Celer

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

91 - 92

Baebius Massa

Proconsul of Baetica.

95 - 96

Galeo T S M E P Tiberius Caepio Hispo

Proconsul of Baetica.

96 - 97

? Gallus

Proconsul of Baetica.

97 - 98

Gaius Caecilius Classicus

Proconsul of Baetica.

98

Writing at this time, Tacitus not only mentions a large number of tribes in Europe, he also describes Ireland. He calls it 'a small country in comparison with Britain. He goes on to state that he has often heard his father-in-law, General Agricola, 'say that Ireland could be reduced and held by a single legion with a fair force of auxiliaries'.

Tombstone of Tacitus
The tombstone of Tacitus once marked the final resting place of one of Rome's most important authors, who not only chronicled the creation of the empire, but also listed the many barbarian tribes of Europe and the British Isles (External Link: Creative Commons Licence 4.0 Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike International)

99 - 102

Aulus Cornelius Palma Frontonianus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

100 - 101

Quintus Baebius Macer

Proconsul of Baetica.

101 - 102

Instanius Rufus

Proconsul of Baetica.

? - 107

? Lustricius Bruttianus

Proconsul of Baetica.

107 - 108

[Titus?] Calestrius Tiro

Proconsul of Baetica.

117 - 136

Emperor Hadrian spends much of his career consolidating the empire and securing its borders. This includes the building of limes, or defensive works, along the Rhine to keep out possible future Germanic incursions, although it is probably Hadrian's successor, Antoninus, who completes much of this work.

Hadrian inscription
The missing half of an inscription to Hadrian was found recycled into a floor around a cistern opening, north of the Damascus gate in Jerusalem

119? - 138?

Marcus D Valerius Asiaticus Saturninus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

119? - 121?

Gaius Calpurnius Flaccus?

Governor of Lusitania. Possibly in Gallia Lugdunensis instead.

122 - 123

Gaius Julius Proculus?

Proconsul of Baetica.

123 - 124

Publius Tullius Varro

Proconsul of Baetica.

? - bef 129

Lucius Flavius Arrianus

Proconsul of Baetica.

128 - 130

Gaius Oppius Sabinus Severus

Governor of Lusitania.

130? - 138?

Junius Homullus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

?

L Roscius Vergilius Staberianus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates unknown, but under Hadrian.

138? - 143?

Egnatius Taurinus

Proconsul of Baetica. Dates approximate.

138? - 140?

Gaius Javolenus Calvinus

Governor of Lusitania. Promoted to Baetica.

140? - 143?

Gaius Javolenus Calvinus

Proconsul of Baetica. Previously in Lusitania.

138? - 161?

Aelius Marcianus

Proconsul of Baetica. Dates approximate.

bef 145

Cornelius Priscianus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

145? - 161?

Lucius V A Octavius Priscus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

fl c.150s

Publius Statius Paullus Postumus Jr

Proconsul of Baetica.

c.151 - 154

[Aulus Avillius Urina]tius Quadratus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates approximate.

c.161 - 164

Salvius Julianus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Later in Africa.

c.164 - 167

Titus P P Vitrasius Pollio

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Former consul.

165 - 180

Plague enters Rome from the east, brought back by returning legionaries. It quickly spreads throughout the empire and is generally known as the Antonine Plague, although the 'Plague of Galen', who describes its spread, is sometimes used.

Roman defensive tower
Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius had concentrated on defining the Roman empire's borders, defending the territory they had. That would have included building watch towers along the limes in the Danube region which the Marcomanni managed to break through

The total death toll may reach five million, with as many as two thousand a day dying in Rome at its height. It may be the reason for the early death of Co-Emperor Lucius Verus in 169, and it drastically weakens the army.

170 - 171

Publius Cornelius Anullinus

Proconsul of Baetica.

171

Gaius Aufidius Victorinus

Proconsul of Baetica. Then Hispania Tarraconensis.

171 -172

Gaius Aufidius Victorinus

Formerly in Baetica. Later in Africa (173/175).

183

Gaius Memmius Fidus Julius Albius

Proconsul of Baetica.

bef 185

Sextus Tigidius Perennis

Governor of Lusitania. Dates very unclear.

c.185 - 188

Cornelius Repentinus?

Governor of Lusitania. Dates approximate.

186? - 189?

Pollienus Auspex

Governor. Possibly later in Britannia (uncertain).

c.188 - 191

Publius Septimius Geta

Governor of Lusitania. Brother of Rome's Septimus Severus.

189 - 192

Quintus Hedius R Lollianus Gentianus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

c.192 - 197

Lucius Novius Rufus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Revolted.

193

Severus marches on Rome and the praetorians declare for him. Emperor Didianus Julianus is dispatched only six months after the death of Emperor Commodus. Severus, now fully in command, offers a far more serious rival - Clodius Albinus - the junior title of Caesar which he accepts.

Arch of Septimus Severus
The Machiavellian Septimus Severus continued to increase the glory of Rome (this surviving arch is named after him) but he continued the imperial practice of Christian persecution

The governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, Lucius Novius Rufus, revolts during this period as a supporter of Clodius Albinus. He is defeated by Gaius Caesonius Macer Rufinianus who seemingly gains the governorship of Lusitania as a reward.

193? - 197

Gaius Caesonius Macer Rufinianus

Governor of Lusitania. First date approximate. Later in Africa.

197 - 198

Tiberius Claudius Candidus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

c.197 - 200

Gaius Junius Faustinus P- Postumianus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates approximate.

198? - 209?

Marcus Maecius Probus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

198? - 209?

Titus Flavius Titianus

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Executed c.216.

198? - 217?

Junius Faustinus Postumianus

Governor. Later in Britannia Inferior (c.222).

c.201 - 209

Decimus Iun[ius? ...] Coelianus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates approximate.

209? - 212?

Marcus Nummius Umbius Primus Senecio

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

c.211

Sextus Furnius Julianus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates approximate.

c.214 - 217

Gaius Julius Cerealis

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

215

Caecilius Aemilianus

Proconsul of Baetica.

217

By 11 April 217, following the curious death of Emperor Antoninus (Caracalla), Macrinus has proclaimed himself emperor of Rome. He is the first man to become so without membership in the senatorial class and is the first emperor of Moorish descent.

Battle of Nisibis
The Battle of Nisibis was the final throw of the dice in the intermittent Roman-Parthian wars, and victory most likely went to the Parthians although they themselves were to fall just seven years later

222? - 235?

Quintus Atrius Clonius

Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis.

c.225 - 227

Rutilius Pudens Crispinus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates approximate.

bef 235?

Lucius Domitius Gallicanus Papinianus

Governor. Formerly in Dalmatia. Later in Germania Inferior.

260 - 274

Crisis strikes the weakened Roman empire, with two major splinter states (both backed here in lilac) forming in the same year. The Rhine frontier collapses completely at around the same time to the Alemanni.

The first is created by Postumus, lieutenant on the Rhine to Emperor Gallienus. He murders the praetorian prefect, Silvanus, and Gallienus' own son Saloninus at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (modern Cologne) and declares himself emperor. The Roman provinces in Germany, Gaul, Iberia, and Britain and their armies support him.

For the next thirteen years the whole of the north-western part of the empire is run as an independent but fully Roman state with its own series of emperors, and is called the ' Empire of the Gallic Provinces' (Imperium Galliarum, or the 'Gallic Empire', surviving during 260-274). Postumus establishes a capital at Cologne, the headquarters of Germania Inferior and chief town of the Ubii.

Coin issued under Carausius
Shown here are two sides of a coin which was issued during the reign as emperor of Britannia of Carausius, forced to rebel in the face of charges of colluding with pirates

The second splinter state is the Palmyrene empire (260-272), which encompasses the Roman provinces of Syria, Palestine, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor. It is ruled as little more than an expanded kingdom by Queen Zenobia for her infant son Vaballanthus with a capital at Palmyra.

late 200s

Aemilius Aemilianus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates highly uncertain.

286 - 293

Datianus

Governor of Lusitania.

293

The crises of the late third century AD prompt Emperor Diocletian to introduce the 'Tetrarchy', along with various administrative reforms. The Iberian province of Hispania Tarraconensis is now divided into three smaller provinces to make it less likely that a repeat will occur of a breakaway part of the empire.

These new divisions are Carthaginensis (covering central and south-east Iberia), Gallaecia (in the north-west, domain of the Gallaeci tribes), and Tarraconensis (the north-east corner). Roman records from this period are highly fragmented as decay sets in, followed by gradual retreat.

Emperor Maximianus
Despite having been raised to office by Diocletian in AD 285, Maximianus seemingly couldn't avoid plotting and planning, even when having been forgiven and readmitted to high office

Carthaginensis

Gallaecia

 

290s - 300?

Dacian

Roman governor of Carthaginensis. Formerly Gaul. Dates vague.

early 300s

Aulus Caecina Tacitus

Roman proconsul of Baetica.

early 300s

L Sempronius O Celsus -lius Fabianus

Roman proconsul of Baetica.

early 300s

Quintus Pomponius Muna- Clodianus

Roman proconsul of Baetica.

c.337 - 340

Iulius Saturninus

Governor of Lusitania. Dates approximate.

bef 338

Fabius Aconius Catullinus Philomatius

Roman governor of Gallaecia before 338. Later in Africa.

337

FeatureConstantine II emerges from the unsettled period following his father's death as the senior Augustus (see feature link), controlling Britain, Gaul, and Iberia - the Gallic Provinces. Constans controls Africa, Italy, and the Illyrian provinces, while Constantius II holds Constantinople and most of the east, including Palestine.

Roman Carthage ruins
Roman Carthage, when it was finally constructed over the ashes of the original city, was of course bigger and better and even more grand than the original city had been

c.350 - 383

FeatureLater to be General Magnus Clemens Maximus, this important Roman figure is born on the Iberian peninsula in the mid-fourth century. His family run a household with some standing, although the details of his origins are a little confused (see feature link).

In AD 383 he takes advantage of the growing contempt for the failing Emperor Gratian by revolting in Britannia. After reorganising the island's defences he invades Gaul with a large army, and is even attributed with setting up a British kingdom in Armorica.

Glomel in Brittany
The landscape of Armorica - extremely hilly inland with a wonderful, long coastline - would have seemed very familiar to the Britons who began to settle here from the late fourth century onwards (Glomel in the modern Côtes-d'Armor département is shown here)

361 - 362

Vettius Agorius Praetextatus

Governor of Lusitania. Died 384.

406 - 409

By now the Franks are settled on the west bank of the Rhine in minor 'kingdoms' which cover areas of north-eastern Gaul, along with some groups of Suevi. Now, in 406, the bulk of the Suevi peoples cross the Rhine at Moguntiacum (Mainz) in association with the Vandali and Alani.

After spending two years ravaging Gaul and migrating southwards into Aquitania, all three tribes are pushed out by the Visigoths and cross the Pyrenees to settle in Roman Iberia by 409, quickly making it a 'Post-Roman Iberia'.

 
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